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Related Concept Videos

Osteoclasts in Bone Remodeling01:31

Osteoclasts in Bone Remodeling

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Osteoclasts are cells responsible for bone resorption and remodeling. They originate from hematopoietic progenitor cells present in the bone marrow. Numerous progenitor cells fuse to form multinucleated cells, each with 10-20 nuclei. A single osteoclast has a diameter of 150 to 200 µM. These cells have ruffled borders that break down the underlying bone tissue and release minerals such as calcium into the blood in bone resorption. Osteoclasts cling to bones with their ruffled edges during...
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When T cells with CD4 markers are activated, they give rise to two types of effector cells: helper T cells and regulatory T cells. Meanwhile, T cells with CD8 markers differentiate into effector cytotoxic T cells. The differentiation of CD4 T cells into helper T cell subsets, such as Th1, Th2, and Th17 cells, is dependent on the antigen type, antigen-presenting cell, and regulatory cytokines.
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Bone Formation by Endochondral Ossification01:24

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Bone formation, or ossification, begins around the sixth to seventh week of embryonic development. Most bones develop from a cartilaginous template through the process of endochondral ossification. Cartilage formation begins when clusters of mesenchymal cells differentiate into chondrocytes. These chondrocytes proliferate rapidly and secrete an extracellular matrix that becomes encased in a membrane called the perichondrium. The resulting cartilage model provides a template that resembles the...
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Bones contain a relatively small number of cells entrenched in a matrix of organic and inorganic components. Although bone cells compose only a small amount of the bone volume, they are crucial to its function. Four types of cells are found within the bone tissue— osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteogenic cells, and osteoclasts.
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Bone Remodeling01:40

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Bone remodeling is a continuous and balanced process of bone resorption by osteoclasts and bone formation by osteoblasts. In adults, it helps maintain bone mass and calcium homeostasis. While mechanical stress can stimulate turnover as part of the normal maintenance and reparative process, several hormones also regulate bone remodeling.
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Unlike epithelial tissue, which is composed of cells closely packed with little or no extracellular space in between, connective tissue cells are dispersed in a matrix. This extracellular matrix (ECM) is composed of fibrous proteins like collagen, elastin, and fibronectin in a ground substance consisting of interstitial fluid, cell adhesion proteins, and proteoglycans. The proteoglycans form a gel-like material in the spaces between cells and provide hydration, buffering, binding, and force...
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Updated: Oct 23, 2025

Flow Cytometry Analysis of Immune Cell Subsets within the Murine Spleen, Bone Marrow, Lymph Nodes and Synovial Tissue in an Osteoarthritis Model
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Cell Interplay in Osteoarthritis.

Zihao Li1, Ziyu Huang2, Lunhao Bai1

  • 1Department of Orthopedics, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China.

Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology
|August 20, 2021
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Osteoarthritis (OA) involves complex cell communication within joint tissues. Stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles show promise for cartilage repair and OA treatment, despite current challenges.

Keywords:
cartilageexosomeinfrapatellar fat padosteoarthritisstem cellsubchondral bonesynovium

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Area of Science:

  • Biomedical Science
  • Regenerative Medicine
  • Osteoarthritis Research

Background:

  • Osteoarthritis (OA) is a prevalent chronic joint disease impacting cartilage and bone.
  • Pathological changes in joint tissues and their cellular crosstalk are critical to OA development.
  • Understanding these cellular interactions is key to elucidating OA pathogenesis.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review the roles of various cells in osteoarthritis pathogenesis.
  • To discuss cell communication mechanisms in OA, including paracrine signaling and extracellular vesicles.
  • To highlight the therapeutic potential of stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles for OA and cartilage repair.

Main Methods:

  • Comprehensive literature review of cellular roles and communication in OA.
  • Analysis of paracrine signaling, microenvironment, co-culture, and extracellular vesicle mechanisms.
  • Focus on stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles and their clinical applications.

Main Results:

  • Identified key cells (chondrocytes, synovial cells, osteoblasts, etc.) involved in OA.
  • Detailed various cell-to-cell communication pathways influencing OA.
  • Highlighted extracellular vesicles, particularly from stem cells, as therapeutic modulators.

Conclusions:

  • Stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles offer significant therapeutic potential for OA and cartilage regeneration.
  • Further research is needed to address challenges and limitations in exosome-based OA treatments.
  • Targeting specific cellular interactions presents a promising avenue for future OA therapies.