Jove
Visualize
Contact Us
JoVE
x logofacebook logolinkedin logoyoutube logo
ABOUT JoVE
OverviewLeadershipBlogJoVE Help Center
AUTHORS
Publishing ProcessEditorial BoardScope & PoliciesPeer ReviewFAQSubmit
LIBRARIANS
TestimonialsSubscriptionsAccessResourcesLibrary Advisory BoardFAQ
RESEARCH
JoVE JournalMethods CollectionsJoVE Encyclopedia of ExperimentsArchive
EDUCATION
JoVE CoreJoVE BusinessJoVE Science EducationJoVE Lab ManualFaculty Resource CenterFaculty Site
Terms & Conditions of Use
Privacy Policy
Policies

Related Concept Videos

From DNA to Protein03:06

From DNA to Protein

19.9K
The flow of genetic information in cells from DNA to mRNA to protein is described by the central dogma, which states that genes specify the sequence of mRNAs, which in turn specify the sequence of amino acids making up all proteins. The decoding of one molecule to another is performed by specific proteins and RNAs. Because the information stored in DNA is so central to cellular function, it makes intuitive sense that the cell would make mRNA copies of this information for protein synthesis...
19.9K
The Central Dogma01:25

The Central Dogma

131.8K
Overview
131.8K
DNA as a Genetic Template02:05

DNA as a Genetic Template

24.1K
Two structural features of the DNA molecule provide a basis for the mechanisms of heredity: the four nucleotide bases and its double-stranded nature. The Watson-Crick model of double-helical DNA structure, proposed in 1952, drew heavily upon the X-ray crystallography work of researchers Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins. Watson, Crick, and Wilkins jointly received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their work in 1962. Franklin was, controversially, excluded from the prize for...
24.1K
tRNA Activation02:26

tRNA Activation

20.6K
Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases are present in both eukaryotes and bacteria. Though eukaryotes have 20 different aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases to couple to 20 amino acids, many bacteria do not have genes for all of these aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases. Despite this, they still use all 20 amino acids to synthesize their proteins. For instance, some bacteria do not have the gene encoding the enzyme that couples glutamine with its partner tRNA. In these organisms, one enzyme adds glutamic acid to all of the...
20.6K
Improving Translational Accuracy02:07

Improving Translational Accuracy

12.0K
Base complementarity between the three base pairs of mRNA codon and the tRNA anticodon is not a failsafe mechanism. Inaccuracies can range from a single mismatch to no correct base pairing at all. The free energy difference between the correct and nearly correct base pairs can be as small as 3 kcal/ mol. With complementarity being the only proofreading step, the estimated error frequency would be one wrong amino acid in every 100 amino acids incorporated. However, error frequencies observed in...
12.0K
Translation01:31

Translation

148.8K
Lesson: Translation
Translation is the process of synthesizing proteins from the genetic information carried by messenger RNA (mRNA). Following transcription, it constitutes the final step in the expression of genes. This process is carried out by ribosomes, complexes of protein and specialized RNA molecules. Ribosomes, transfer RNA (tRNA), and other proteins produce a chain of amino acids—the polypeptide—as the end product of translation.
Translation Produces the Building Blocks of...
148.8K

You might also read

Related Articles

Articles linked to this work by shared authors, journal, and citation graph.

Sort by
Same author

Ordering events in a developing genetic code.

RNA biology·2024
Same author

The Genetic Code Assembles via Division and Fusion, Basic Cellular Events.

Life (Basel, Switzerland)·2023
Same author

A crescendo of competent coding (c3) contains the Standard Genetic Code.

RNA (New York, N.Y.)·2022
Same author

Optimal Evolution of the Standard Genetic Code.

Journal of molecular evolution·2021
Same author

Evolution of the Standard Genetic Code.

Journal of molecular evolution·2021
Same author

Crick Wobble and Superwobble in Standard Genetic Code Evolution.

Journal of molecular evolution·2021
Same journal

The TaMYB55-TaSnRK1α1-TabZIP9 module confers heat stress tolerance in wheat.

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America·2026
Same journal

Superstatistics approach to turbulent circulation fluctuations.

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America·2026
Same journal

A molecular timescale for evolution of cobamide biosynthesis.

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America·2026
Same journal

Pierre Chambon, a pioneer of molecular biology and gene regulation in eukaryotes.

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America·2026
Same journal

Granulosa cell glycogen fuels the avascular corpus luteum.

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America·2026
Same journal

Synthetic essentiality of TRAIL/TNFSF10 in VHL-deficient renal cell carcinoma.

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America·2026
See all related articles

Related Experiment Video

Updated: Oct 22, 2025

Residue-specific Incorporation of Noncanonical Amino Acids into Model Proteins Using an Escherichia coli Cell-free Transcription-translation System
11:47

Residue-specific Incorporation of Noncanonical Amino Acids into Model Proteins Using an Escherichia coli Cell-free Transcription-translation System

Published on: August 1, 2016

16.1K

Fitting the standard genetic code into its triplet table.

Michael Yarus1

  • 1Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309-0347 Michael.Yarus@Colorado.edu.

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
|August 31, 2021
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Minimally evolved genetic codes reveal intrinsic coding sensitivities and constraints. Wobble domain shape and size critically influence codon assignments, suggesting a pathway for the standard genetic code (SGC) origin.

Keywords:
RNA worldanticodoncodonevolutiontranslation

More Related Videos

A Facile Protocol to Generate Site-Specifically Acetylated Proteins in Escherichia Coli
11:08

A Facile Protocol to Generate Site-Specifically Acetylated Proteins in Escherichia Coli

Published on: December 9, 2017

7.2K
Author Spotlight: Getting an A with the 3Cs: Chromosome Conformation Capture for Undergraduates
09:13

Author Spotlight: Getting an A with the 3Cs: Chromosome Conformation Capture for Undergraduates

Published on: May 12, 2023

3.8K

Related Experiment Videos

Last Updated: Oct 22, 2025

Residue-specific Incorporation of Noncanonical Amino Acids into Model Proteins Using an Escherichia coli Cell-free Transcription-translation System
11:47

Residue-specific Incorporation of Noncanonical Amino Acids into Model Proteins Using an Escherichia coli Cell-free Transcription-translation System

Published on: August 1, 2016

16.1K
A Facile Protocol to Generate Site-Specifically Acetylated Proteins in Escherichia Coli
11:08

A Facile Protocol to Generate Site-Specifically Acetylated Proteins in Escherichia Coli

Published on: December 9, 2017

7.2K
Author Spotlight: Getting an A with the 3Cs: Chromosome Conformation Capture for Undergraduates
09:13

Author Spotlight: Getting an A with the 3Cs: Chromosome Conformation Capture for Undergraduates

Published on: May 12, 2023

3.8K

Area of Science:

  • Genetics
  • Molecular Biology
  • Bioinformatics

Background:

  • The standard genetic code (SGC) exhibits inherent order and degeneracy.
  • Understanding the evolutionary pathways to the SGC is a fundamental challenge in molecular biology.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate the fundamental properties of genetic codes by constructing minimally evolved codes.
  • To explore constraints on genetic code evolution and identify plausible origins for the SGC.

Main Methods:

  • Construction of hypothetical genetic codes with randomly assigned triplets, retaining basic SGC qualities.
  • Analysis of combinatorial properties and sensitivity to arbitrary assignments (<~10%).
  • Examination of the role of wobble domains in fitting codes into a coding table and influencing assignment accuracy.

Main Results:

  • Minimally evolved codes demonstrate intrinsic sensitivity to assignments, constraining evolutionary hypotheses.
  • Wobble domain characteristics significantly impact codon assignment accuracy and code table fitting.
  • A model involving three-dimensional Crick wobble and lateral transfer between partial codes satisfies requirements for SGC origin.

Conclusions:

  • The origin of the SGC likely involved limited randomness and a pathway avoiding difficult completions.
  • Lateral transfer and parallel domain evolution offer a plausible route to SGC-level order, even in small populations.
  • This model unifies chemical, biochemical, and wobble order, supporting a credible fusion of intermediates into the final SGC.