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In 1931, physicist Ernst Ruska—building on the idea that magnetic fields can direct an electron beam just as lenses can direct a beam of light in an optical microscope—developed the first prototype of the electron microscope. This development led to the development of the field of electron microscopy. In the transmission electron microscope (TEM), electrons are produced by a hot tungsten element and accelerated by a potential difference in an electron gun, which gives them up to 400...
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The wavelengths of visible light ultimately limit the maximum theoretical resolution of images created by light microscopes. Most light microscopes can only magnify 1000X, and a few can magnify up to 1500X. Electrons, like electromagnetic radiation, can behave like waves, but with wavelengths of 0.005 nm, they produce significantly greater resolution up to 0.05 nm as compared to 500 nm for visible light. An electron microscope (EM) can create a sharp image that is magnified up to 2,000,000X.
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A scanning electron microscope (SEM) is used to study the surface features of a sample by using an electron beam that scans the sample surface in a two-dimensional manner. Typically, areas between ~1 centimeter to 5 micrometers in width can be imaged. SEM can be used to image bacteria, viruses, tissues as well as larger samples like insects. Conventional SEM gives a magnification ranging from 20X to 30,000X and spatial resolution of 50 to 100 nanometers.
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Electron carriers can be thought of as electron shuttles. These compounds can easily accept electrons (i.e., be reduced) or lose them (i.e., be oxidized). They play an essential role in energy production because cellular respiration is contingent on the flow of electrons.
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Oct 21, 2025

Neutron Radiography and Computed Tomography of Biological Systems at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory's High Flux Isotope Reactor
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Nontoxic electron collimators.

Dylan Yamabe Breitkreutz1, Lawrie Skinner1, Stephanie Lo1

  • 1Department of Radiation Oncology, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA.

Journal of Applied Clinical Medical Physics
|September 4, 2021
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Nontoxic electron collimation technologies, including tungsten-silicone and 3D printed cutouts, show promise for clinical use. These novel methods offer improved dose uniformity and are dosimetrically equivalent to current standards.

Keywords:
3D printingelectron therapyskin collimation

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Area of Science:

  • Medical Physics
  • Radiation Oncology
  • Materials Science

Background:

  • Clinical electron therapy requires precise dose shaping and shielding.
  • Current collimation technologies, such as cerrobend, have limitations in terms of toxicity and flexibility.
  • Development of advanced, nontoxic electron collimation is crucial for improving patient treatment and safety.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To develop and evaluate novel, nontoxic electron collimation technologies for clinical applications.
  • To assess the dosimetric properties and clinical feasibility of tungsten-silicone composite and 3D printed electron cutouts.

Main Methods:

  • Investigated tungsten-silicone composite for transmission, dose uniformity, and profile analysis.
  • Evaluated 3D printed electron cutouts against standard cerrobend cutouts for surface dose, output, and field size.
  • Developed quality assurance tests for 3D printed cutouts, including mass, imaging, and drop testing.

Main Results:

  • Tungsten-silicone shields demonstrated sharper dose profiles (2-3 mm penumbra) compared to cerrobend (7-8 mm).
  • 3D printed cutouts showed dosimetric equivalence to cerrobend, with maximum differences in output, surface dose, and FWHM below 2%.
  • Tungsten-silicone provided significant electron intensity reduction (~90%) at clinically relevant energies and thicknesses.

Conclusions:

  • Both tungsten-silicone and 3D printed cutouts are feasible for clinical electron therapy.
  • Tungsten-silicone exhibits adequate density, flexibility, and uniformity for skin shielding.
  • 3D printed cutouts are dosimetrically equivalent and robust for clinical handling, offering a viable alternative to cerrobend.