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Related Concept Videos

Insulin: Dosing Regimen and Adverse Effects01:16

Insulin: Dosing Regimen and Adverse Effects

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Insulin-replacement therapy usually includes both long-acting insulin (basal) and short-acting insulin (to cater to postprandial needs). In a diverse group of type 1 diabetes patients, the average daily insulin dose is typically 0.5-0.7 units/kg body weight. However, obese patients and pubertal adolescents may need more due to insulin resistance.
The basal dose constitutes about 40%-50% of the total daily dose, with the rest as premeal insulin. The mealtime insulin dose should mirror...
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Insulin: Biosynthesis, Chemistry, and Preparation01:25

Insulin: Biosynthesis, Chemistry, and Preparation

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The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of pancreatic β-cells synthesizes preproinsulin, which consists of a signal peptide, A and B chains, and a C-peptide. Preproinsulin is then cleaved and folded into proinsulin, which translocates to the Golgi apparatus for sorting and packaging into secretory granules. In these granules, enzymatic clipping generates insulin and C-peptide.
Damage or functional impairment of β-cells inhibits insulin production, leading to diabetes. Diabetes treatment...
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Insulin Formulations: Types and Delivery01:27

Insulin Formulations: Types and Delivery

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Insulin preparations are categorized by their duration of action into short-acting and long-acting types. Two strategies are used to modify insulin's absorption and pharmacokinetic profile: slowing the absorption post-subcutaneous injection, or altering human insulin's amino acid sequence or protein structure. These changes retain the insulin's ability to bind to the insulin receptor, but alter its behavior in solution or after injection.
Short-acting insulins are divided into...
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Diabetes Mellitus: Overview and Type I Subtype01:22

Diabetes Mellitus: Overview and Type I Subtype

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Diabetes mellitus is a chronic metabolic disorder characterized by high blood glucose levels due to inadequate insulin production, insulin resistance, or both. The condition affects millions worldwide and can significantly impact their health and quality of life.
Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disease in which the immune system mistakenly attacks and destroys the insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas. As a result, the body is unable to produce sufficient insulin, and individuals with...
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Diabetes: Management and Pharmacotherapy01:15

Diabetes: Management and Pharmacotherapy

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The therapy for diabetes aims to alleviate hyperglycemia-related symptoms, prevent acute metabolic decompensation, and reduce chronic end-organ complications. Glycemic control is evaluated through short-term (self-monitoring, continuous glucose monitoring) and long-term (A1c, fructosamine) metrics, enabling near real-time tracking of blood glucose levels and reflecting glycemic control over specific time frames.
Insulin remains the cornerstone of treatment for most patients with type 1 and many...
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Carbohydrate Metabolism01:36

Carbohydrate Metabolism

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Carbohydrates are polymers composed of molecules containing atoms of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. One gram of carbohydrate can provide four kilo-calories of energy, which makes it the most efficient instant energy source.
Starch accounts for approximately 60% of the carbohydrates consumed by humans. Since amylase enzymes cannot function in the stomach's acidic environment, starch can only be digested in the mouth and small intestine. Simple sugars are found naturally in milk and fruits in...
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Updated: Oct 21, 2025

Isolation, Culture, and Imaging of Human Fetal Pancreatic Cell Clusters
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Insulin therapy development beyond 100 years.

Philip D Home1, Roopa Mehta2

  • 1Translational and Clinical Research Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK.

The Lancet. Diabetes & Endocrinology
|September 4, 2021
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Despite 100 years of use, subcutaneous insulin injections for diabetes remain suboptimal. New delivery methods like oral insulin and glucose-responsive formulations show promise but face challenges in matching natural insulin release.

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Area of Science:

  • Endocrinology
  • Drug Delivery Systems
  • Diabetes Management

Background:

  • Insulin therapy, developed in 1921, remains the cornerstone for blood glucose control in diabetes.
  • Current subcutaneous insulin delivery methods are often suboptimal, failing to meet physiological needs.

Observation:

  • Oral insulin delivery and glucose-responsive insulin formulations have advanced significantly.
  • Alternative delivery methods include packaged insulin peptides, chemical insulin mimetics, nanoparticles, and insulin patches.

Findings:

  • Glucose-responsive insulins and modified delivery systems aim to overcome issues of unregulated absorption and improve glycemic control.
  • Targeting insulin to specific organs is being explored through molecular engineering.
  • Despite technological advancements, matching the natural responsiveness of insulin delivery to metabolic demands remains a significant challenge.

Implications:

  • Further research into novel insulin delivery systems is crucial for improving diabetes management.
  • Overcoming absorption and responsiveness barriers could lead to more effective and convenient insulin therapies.
  • The development of advanced insulin analogues with tailored action durations offers improved basal and mealtime control.