Reactive astrocytes induced by 2-chloroethanol modulate microglia polarization through IL-1β, TNF-α, and iNOS...

The synthetic organic chemical, 1,2-dichloroethane (1,2-DCE), can cause brain edemas under subacute poisoning. Our previous studies indicated that neuroinflammation could be induced due to astrocytes and microglia activation during brain edemas in 1,2-DCE-intoxicated mice. However, the crosstalk between these two glial cells in 1,2-DCE-induced neuroinflammation remained unclear. In this study, primary cultured rat astrocytes and microglia, as well as an immortalized microglia cell line were employed to study the effects of 2-chloroethanol (2-CE, a 1,2-DCE intermediate metabolite in vivo) treated astrocytes on microglia polarization. Our current results revealed that 2-CE treated rat astrocytes were activated through p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38 MAPK)/nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB), and activator protein-1 (AP-1) signaling pathways. Theses pathways were triggered by reactive oxygen species (ROS) produced during 2-CE metabolism. Also, astrocytes were more sensitive to 2-CE effects than microglia. Interleukin-1β (IL-1β), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expressions were upregulated in 2-CE-induced reactive astrocytes, enhancing IL-1β, TNF-α, and nitric oxide (NO) excretions, which stimulated microglia polarization. Therefore, the neuroinflammation induced by 1,2-DCE in mice's brains is probably triggered by reactive astrocytes.