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General Structure of a Vertebra

General Structure of a Vertebra

A typical vertebra, with the exception of the sacrum and coccyx, consists of a body, a vertebral arch, and seven different projections termed processes. The anterior portion of the vertebrae, the body, supports about half the body’s weight. The vertebral bodies progressively increase in size and thickness from the cervical region to the lumbar region of the vertebral column. The intervertebral discs present between the bodies of adjacent vertebrae firmly unites them, forming a continuous...

Structural Joints: Cartilaginous Joints

Structural Joints: Cartilaginous Joints

As the name indicates, at a cartilaginous joint, the adjacent bones are united by cartilage, a tough but flexible type of connective tissue. Unlike synovial joints, these types of joints lack a joint cavity and involve bones joined together by either hyaline cartilage or fibrocartilage.
There are two types of cartilaginous joints:
Synchondrosis
A synchondrosis ("joined by cartilage") is a cartilaginous joint where bones are connected by hyaline cartilage. Synchondrosis may be temporary...

Articulations of the Vertebral Column

Articulations of the Vertebral Column

In addition to being held together by the intervertebral discs, adjacent vertebrae also articulate with each other at synovial joints formed between the superior and inferior articular processes called zygapophysial joints (facet joints). These are plane joints that provide for only limited motions between the vertebrae. The orientation of the articular processes at these joints varies in different regions of the vertebral column and serves to determine the types of motions available in each...

Vertebral Column: Regions and Curvature

Vertebral Column: Regions and Curvature

The vertebral column or spine is a flexible column that supports the head, neck, and body and allows for their movements. It also protects the spinal cord.
Regions of the Vertebral Column
In an adult, the spine is subdivided into five regions: the cervical, the thoracic, the lumbar, the sacral, and the coccygeal region. The spine initially develops as a series of 33 vertebrae; after 20 years of age, the nine bones in the sacral region, five sacral, and four coccygeal bones fuse to form...

Muscles of the Vertebral Column

Muscles of the Vertebral Column

The back muscles that lie deep into the thoracolumbar fascia are called intrinsic or true back muscles. These muscles are divided into four layers: superficial, intermediate, deep, and deepest layers.
Superficial Layer:
The superficial layer consists primarily of the splenius muscles, which include the splenius capitis and splenius cervicis. These muscles are mainly responsible for the head and cervical spine movements, including extension, rotation, and lateral bending. The splenius capitis...

Spinal Cord: Gross Anatomy

Spinal Cord: Gross Anatomy

The spinal cord resides within the protective confines of the vertebral column. It is the main pathway for information traveling between the brain and the body. It plays a fundamental role in nearly all bodily functions, from simple reflexes to complex motor movements. The spinal cord begins at the medulla oblongata at the base of the brainstem and extends downward, terminating at the conus medullaris near the first and second lumbar vertebrae. The spinal cord's length in adults is...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Oct 17, 2025

Precision Measurements and Parametric Models of Vertebral Endplates

Precision Measurements and Parametric Models of Vertebral Endplates

Published on: September 17, 2019

Structure-function relationships of the human vertebral endplate.

Yuanqiao Wu¹, Johnfredy Loaiza¹, Rohin Banerji²

¹Department of Mechanical Engineering Boston University Boston Massachusetts USA.

|October 6, 2021

Summary

This study quantifies vertebral endplate mechanics, finding bone density and fraction predict its strength and stiffness. This may enable noninvasive assessment of spinal health during loading.

Keywords:

bending density fracture micro‐computed tomography vertebral endplate

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Last Updated: Oct 17, 2025

Precision Measurements and Parametric Models of Vertebral Endplates

Precision Measurements and Parametric Models of Vertebral Endplates

Published on: September 17, 2019

Optical Sectioning and Visualization of the Intervertebral Disc from Embryonic Development to Degeneration

Optical Sectioning and Visualization of the Intervertebral Disc from Embryonic Development to Degeneration

Published on: July 8, 2021

A Mouse Model of Lumbar Spine Instability

A Mouse Model of Lumbar Spine Instability

Published on: April 23, 2021

Area of Science:

Biomechanics
Spinal Anatomy
Materials Science

Background:

Vertebral endplate deformation and fracture are linked to spinal conditions like vertebral fracture and disc degeneration.
Limited biomechanical data exists for the vertebral endplate structure.

Purpose of the Study:

To quantify the mechanical behavior of the vertebral endplate.
To investigate the relationship between vertebral endplate mechanical properties and its density and composition.

Main Methods:

Dissection of 85 human lumbar endplate specimens (L1-L4).
Micro-computed tomography (μCT) for imaging.
Four-point-bend testing and ashing to determine mechanical properties (modulus, yield stress, strain) and tissue composition (bone volume fraction [BV/TV], bone mineral density [BMD]).

Main Results:

Significant variation in mechanical properties and tissue composition was observed.
BMD and BV/TV effectively predicted apparent-level mechanical properties, including modulus, yield stress, and failure strains.
Superior and inferior endplates showed similar mechanical properties; tissue-level density did not correlate with mechanical properties.

Conclusions:

Vertebral endplate mechanical properties depend on BV/TV and BMD, suggesting potential for noninvasive assessment of spinal loading behavior.
Further research is needed on nonmineral components to fully understand endplate tissue mechanics.