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Smartphone-Assisted Protein to Creatinine Ratio Determination on a Single Paper-Based Analytical Device.

Izabela Lewińska1, Karolina Kurdziałek1, Łukasz Tymecki1

  • 1Faculty of Chemistry, University of Warsaw, Pasteura 1, 02-093 Warsaw, Poland.

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Summary

A novel paper-based sensor aids in diagnosing proteinuria, a key indicator of kidney disease. This smartphone-assisted device offers a rapid, reliable method for monitoring protein levels in urine.

Keywords:
3,5-dinitrobenzoic acidalbumin to creatinine ratiocreatininepaper-based analytical devicesproteinproteinuriasmartphonetetrabromophenol blue

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Area of Science:

  • Analytical Chemistry
  • Biomedical Engineering
  • Clinical Diagnostics

Background:

  • Proteinuria, excessive protein in urine, is a critical marker for kidney disease and cardiovascular risk.
  • Accurate and timely diagnosis and monitoring of proteinuria are essential for patient management.
  • Current diagnostic methods may lack the speed or accessibility required for widespread use.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To develop and validate a paper-based sensor for the diagnosis and monitoring of proteinuria.
  • To optimize protein assay methods for use on a paper matrix.
  • To integrate smartphone technology for accessible signal acquisition and analysis.

Main Methods:

  • Optimization and comparison of protein assays on a paper substrate.
  • Selection of the tetrabromophenol blue method for its low limit of detection and stability.
  • Development of a single paper-based sensor for determining the protein-to-creatinine ratio (PCR).
  • Validation using smartphone-assisted signal acquisition and recovery studies in artificial urine.

Main Results:

  • The tetrabromophenol blue method demonstrated a low limit of detection (39 mg·L⁻¹) and long-term stability (up to 3 months).
  • The paper-based sensor achieved linear ranges for protein and creatinine within clinically relevant values.
  • PCR recovery studies in artificial urine yielded results between 80% and 150%, indicating analytical usefulness.

Conclusions:

  • A validated paper-based sensor, utilizing the tetrabromophenol blue assay and smartphone assistance, enables reliable proteinuria assessment.
  • The developed sensor provides a promising tool for rapid, accessible diagnosis and monitoring of proteinuria.
  • This technology has the potential to improve patient outcomes through timely detection of kidney-related conditions.