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Gross Anatomy of the Lungs01:17

Gross Anatomy of the Lungs

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The lungs are a pair of vital organs connected to the trachea via the left and right bronchi. The base of these organs meets the dome-shaped muscle known as the diaphragm. Encased by the pleurae, the lungs contact the mediastinum. The right lung is shorter yet wider, and has a larger volume than the left lung. The left lung has an indentation known as the cardiac notch. The superior region of the lungs is referred to as the apex, whereas the base is the lower region near the diaphragm. The...
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Anatomy of Respiratory System II: Lower Respiratory Tract01:31

Anatomy of Respiratory System II: Lower Respiratory Tract

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The lower respiratory tract is anatomically composed of several vital structures, including the larynx, trachea, bronchial tree, alveoli, lungs, and pleurae. Each component has a specific function, and all are intricately connected to ensure efficient respiration.
The Larynx
It is located between the pharynx and the trachea, acts as a passageway for air, and hosts several critical structures, such as the epiglottis, vocal cords, and glottis. The epiglottis acts as a gateway, guiding food to the...
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Defense Mechanism Against Infection01:26

Defense Mechanism Against Infection

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Natural flora, body system defenses, and inflammation are natural barriers of the body against infectious agents regardless of previous exposure. Normal floras of the human body refer to the microbial population that colonizes the skin and mucous membranes.
In addition, many body organ systems have unique defenses against infection. The skin is an intact, multilayered surface preventing invasion by microorganisms unless impaired. Mucous membranes lining the mouth, nose, and eyelids are barriers...
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Overview of Respiratory System01:23

Overview of Respiratory System

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The respiratory system is a complex biological apparatus that facilitates the exchange of gases, specifically oxygen and carbon dioxide, between our bodies and the environment. This system plays a vital role in the physiological process of respiration, an essential function for sustaining life.
What is the Respiratory System?
The respiratory system consists of a series of organs responsible for taking in oxygen and expelling carbon dioxide. The primary function of the respiratory system is to...
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What is the Immune System?01:38

What is the Immune System?

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Overview
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The Respiratory System01:16

The Respiratory System

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The respiratory system is comprised of the organs that enable breathing. Air enters the nostrils and mouth, followed by the pharynx (throat) and larynx (voice box), which lead to the trachea (windpipe). In the thoracic cavity, the trachea splits into two bronchi that allow air to enter the lungs. The bronchi split into progressively smaller bronchioles and terminate in small groups of tiny sacs in the lungs called alveoli, where gas exchange occurs.
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Oct 15, 2025

Human Lung Dendritic Cells: Spatial Distribution and Phenotypic Identification in Endobronchial Biopsies Using Immunohistochemistry and Flow Cytometry
11:02

Human Lung Dendritic Cells: Spatial Distribution and Phenotypic Identification in Endobronchial Biopsies Using Immunohistochemistry and Flow Cytometry

Published on: January 20, 2017

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Local Defence System in Healthy Lungs.

Elizabeta Lohova1, Zane Vitenberga-Verza1, Dzintra Kazoka1

  • 1Institute of Anatomy and Anthropology, Riga Stradins University, LV-1010 Riga, Latvia.

Clinics and Practice
|October 26, 2021
PubMed
Summary

Healthy lung tissues show baseline antimicrobial protein and IL-17A synthesis, particularly in cartilage and alveolar cells. These factors cooperate to provide innate lung defense against infection.

Keywords:
factorshealthy lungsimmunitylocal defencerespiratory system

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Area of Science:

  • Pulmonary immunology
  • Innate immunity
  • Respiratory medicine

Background:

  • The respiratory system serves as a primary route for pathogen entry.
  • Understanding innate defense mechanisms in the lung is crucial for host protection.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To compare the expression of specific mucosal pro-inflammatory and antimicrobial factors in healthy human lung tissue.
  • To investigate these factors from an ontogenetic perspective.

Main Methods:

  • Analysis of healthy lung tissues from 15 adult patients (18-86 years old).
  • Immunohistochemistry was used to detect human β defensin 2 (HBD-2), HBD-3, HBD-4, cathelicidine (LL-37), and interleukine 17A (IL-17A).

Main Results:

  • No inflammatory histological changes were observed in the analyzed lung tissues.
  • Statistically significant differences in the expression of antimicrobial factors and IL-17A were found across various lung tissue structures.

Conclusions:

  • Healthy lung structures, notably cartilage, alveolar epithelium, and alveolar macrophages, are key sites for baseline antimicrobial protein and IL-17A synthesis.
  • Lung cartilage exhibits functional plasticity and contributes to local lung defense.
  • Interrelated expression patterns suggest synergistic cooperation among these factors in healthy lung host defense.