Independent evolutionary transitions to pueriparity across multiple timescales in the viviparous genus Salamandra

The ability to bear live offspring, viviparity, has evolved multiple times across the tree of life and is a remarkable adaptation with profound life-history and ecological implications. Within amphibians the ancestral reproductive mode is oviparity followed by a larval life stage, but viviparity has evolved independently in all three amphibian orders. Two types of viviparous reproduction can be distinguished in amphibians; larviparity and pueriparity. Larviparous amphibians deliver larvae into nearby ponds and streams, while pueriparous amphibians deliver fully developed juveniles and thus do not require waterbodies for reproduction. Among amphibians, the salamander genus Salamandra is remarkable as it exhibits both inter- and intraspecific variation in the occurrence of larviparity and pueriparity. While the evolutionary relationships among Salamandra lineages have been the focus of several recent studies, our understanding of how often and when transitions between modes occurred is still incomplete. Furthermore, in species with intraspecific variation, the reproductive mode of a given population can only be confirmed by direct observation of births and thus the prevalence of pueriparous populations is also incompletely documented. We used sequence capture to obtain 1,326 loci from 94 individuals from across the geographic range of the genus, focusing on potential reproductive mode transition zones. We also report additional direct observations of pueriparous births for 20 new locations and multiple lineages. We identify at least five independent transitions from the ancestral mode of larviparity to pueriparity among and within species, occurring at different evolutionary timescales ranging from the Pliocene to the Holocene. Four of these transitions occurred within species. Based on a distinct set of markers and analyses, we also confirm previous findings of introgression between species and the need for taxonomic revisions in the genus. We discuss the implications of our findings with respect to the evolution of this complex trait, and the potential of using five independent convergent transitions for further studies on the ecological context in which pueriparity evolves and the genetic architecture of this specialized reproductive mode.