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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 30, 2026

Skeletal Muscle Gender Dimorphism from Proteomics

Skeletal Muscle Gender Dimorphism from Proteomics

Published on: December 14, 2011

Sex/Gender Attribution: When the Penis Makes the Difference.

Stefano Federici^1,2, Alessandro Lepri³, Eleonora D'Urzo⁴

¹Department of Philosophy, Social and Human Sciences and Education, University of Perugia, Piazza G. Ermini 1, 06123, Perugia, Italy. stefano.federici@unipg.it.

Archives of Sexual Behavior

|November 15, 2021

Summary

The penis is significantly more salient than the vulva in gender attribution. This study confirms that individuals are more likely to perceive someone as male when presented with male genitalia, supporting the adage "See someone as female only when you cannot see them as male."

Keywords:

Cognitive biases Ethnomethodological approach Evolutionary psychology Gender attribution Gender identity Sex attribution

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Area of Science:

Social Psychology
Cognitive Psychology
Evolutionary Psychology

Background:

Kessler and McKenna's (1978) ethnomethodological study explored gender attribution.
Their research indicated male sexual characteristics are more salient than female ones.

Purpose of the Study:

To replicate Kessler and McKenna's findings using realistic digital stimuli.
To investigate the salience of genital features in gender perception.

Main Methods:

592 adults were presented with 120 digital images of human nudes.
Participants attributed gender based on visual cues, focusing on genitalia.

Main Results:

Male gender was attributed 86% of the time when the penis was shown.
Female gender was attributed 67% of the time when the vulva was shown.
Results confirmed the greater salience of the penis in gender recognition.

Conclusions:

The penis plays a critical role in gender attribution, confirming prior research.
Evolved cognitive biases, not just cultural factors, may influence gender perception.
Findings integrate ethnomethodology with evolutionary and cognitive psychology perspectives.