The legacy of predator threat shapes prey foraging behaviour

Predators exert strong selection on prey foraging behaviour such that prey responses may reflect a combination of ancestral effects of predators (genetic and nongenetic transgenerational effects), past individual experience with predators (phenotypic plasticity), and current exposure to predators (behavioural response). However, the importance of these factors in shaping prey foraging behaviour is not well understood. To test the relative effects of ancestry, prior experience, and current exposure, we measured foraging rates and food size preference of different ancestry and exposure groups of Western mosquitofish in the presence and absence of immediate threat from predatory largemouth bass. Our results confirm that mosquitofish had lower foraging rate in the immediate presence of predator threat. Mosquitofish also foraged at a lower rate if they had ancestry with predators, regardless of immediate threat. In contrast, individual prior experience with predators only caused reduced foraging rates in the immediate presence of a predator. This suggests that phenotypic plasticity could carry a lower risk of maladaptive antipredator responses-i.e., reduced food intake-in the complete absence of a predator. Finally, in the presence of a predator, mosquitofish with both ancestry and experience with predators consumed larger, presumably more energetically valuable, food items. Overall, our results show that non-consumptive effects of predators on prey behaviour can persist within and across generations, such that the legacy of past predator exposure-or "the ghost of predation past"-may continue to shape prey behaviour even when predators are no longer around.