Both landscape heterogeneity and configuration determine Woodlarks (Lullula arborea) breeding territories

Farmland birds have declined in the last decades mostly due to agriculture intensification. The Woodlark Lullula arborea, a farmland species of conservation concern and protected by the European Bird Directive, occurs in a variety of habitats across its geographic range. Although habitat heterogeneity has been recognized as a key feature, the preference or avoidance of particular habitat attributes might differ across its range because different localities may have distinct conditions. Such variation would challenge conservation efforts at the local level. Our aim was to assess habitat associations of Woodlarks and determine whether the habitat attributes identified as important in other locations across its range could be generalised and applied to Austrian populations. In addition, habitat associations can be influenced by land-use change. We examined changes in land use from 2007 to 2016 in 15 municipalities surrounding areas occupied by Woodlarks. We quantified the composition and configuration of the local landscape surrounding 18 singing males' territories and 16 non-territory sites. We found that the probability of Woodlarks territories increased with landscape heterogeneity between 50% and 70%, increased with dispersed bare soil patches, decreased with overall patch density and were away from dirt roads. Contrary to our expectation, there was no indication of land-use change. In contrast to previous studies, vegetation height, the presence and proximity to woodland were not identified as important habitat characteristics. Thus, some conservation recommendations can be derived from other localities, for example, maintaining or enhancing landscape heterogeneity. However, others should be adapted to local conditions. In Austria, conservation efforts should focus on including dispersed patches of bare soil and limiting the development of dirt roads nearby Woodlark territories, in addition to promoting a heterogeneous landscape.