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Updated: Oct 11, 2025

Quantification of Plasmid-Mediated Antibiotic Resistance in an Experimental Evolution Approach
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Ecological and evolutionary solutions to the plasmid paradox.

Michael A Brockhurst1, Ellie Harrison2

  • 1Division of Evolution and Genomic Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine, and Health, The University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PT, UK.

Trends in Microbiology
|December 1, 2021
PubMed
Summary

The plasmid paradox, concerning how plasmids persist despite theoretical challenges, is now explained by ecological and evolutionary mechanisms. Further research aims to predict plasmid distribution and horizontal gene transfer dynamics in bacterial communities.

Keywords:
accessory genomehorizontal gene transfermobile genetic elementpangenomeplasmid

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Area of Science:

  • Microbiology
  • Evolutionary Biology
  • Genetics

Background:

  • Plasmids are common in bacterial genomes but theoretically face challenges to their persistence.
  • The 'plasmid paradox' highlights the conflict between plasmid prevalence and theoretical models of their maintenance and spread.
  • Previous understanding suggested plasmids should be lost due to maintenance costs and trait transfer to chromosomes.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To explain the widespread distribution and stable maintenance of plasmids in bacterial populations.
  • To address the theoretical challenges posed by the 'plasmid paradox'.
  • To synthesize current data and theory on plasmid persistence.

Main Methods:

  • Review of existing data and theoretical models.
  • Analysis of ecological and evolutionary mechanisms.
  • Synthesis of findings to explain plasmid maintenance.

Main Results:

  • Multiple ecological and evolutionary mechanisms now explain plasmid persistence.
  • The 'plasmid paradox' is resolved by understanding these diverse mechanisms.
  • Widespread distribution and stable maintenance of plasmids are now better understood.

Conclusions:

  • The 'plasmid paradox' is largely resolved through a comprehensive understanding of various mechanisms.
  • The current challenge lies in predicting plasmid distribution and horizontal gene transfer dynamics in natural bacterial communities.
  • Further research should focus on the interplay of these mechanisms within complex microbial ecosystems.