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Generalization, Discrimination, and Extinction

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Generalization, discrimination, and extinction are key concepts in operant conditioning that influence how behaviors are learned and maintained.
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Oct 11, 2025

Extinction Training During the Reconsolidation Window Prevents Recovery of Fear
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Cortisol before extinction generalization alters its neural correlates during retrieval.

Bianca Hagedorn1, Oliver T Wolf1, Christian J Merz1

  • 1Department of Cognitive Psychology, Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, Faculty of Psychology, Ruhr University Bochum, Germany.

Psychoneuroendocrinology
|December 5, 2021
PubMed
Summary

Extinction learning can be generalized to reduce fear relapse, but cortisol did not enhance this generalization. Generalization relied on sustained fear processing during extinction training, leading to reduced fear responses.

Keywords:
Fear conditioningFunctional magnetic resonance imagingGlucocorticoidsReinstatementReturn of fearStress hormones

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Area of Science:

  • Neuroscience
  • Psychology
  • Pharmacology

Background:

  • Fear generalization is common in disorders, while extinction learning is stimulus-specific.
  • Treatments to generalize extinction learning may reduce relapse.
  • Cortisol administration is a potential candidate for enhancing extinction generalization.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate if generalized extinction memory can be created using varied conditioned stimulus (CS) sizes.
  • To examine the effects of cortisol on extinction generalization.
  • To compare generalized (CS+G) and non-generalized (CS+N) extinction memory traces.

Main Methods:

  • A three-day fear conditioning study with 60 healthy participants.
  • Administered 20mg cortisol or placebo before extinction training.
  • Used multiple CS sizes for CS+G and original sizes for CS+N and CS-.
  • Measured brain activation (insula, dACC, hippocampus, amygdala) and skin conductance responses.

Main Results:

  • Prolonged fear processing for CS+G during extinction training (insula, dACC activation).
  • Cortisol modulated hippocampal activation during retrieval, differentiating CS+N and CS+G.
  • Reduced amygdala and dACC responding for CS+G during reinstatement, but cortisol abolished dACC differentiation.
  • Skin conductance responses did not mirror generalization or cortisol effects.

Conclusions:

  • Extinction generalization involves sustained fear processing, leading to reduced fear after reinstatement.
  • Cortisol reduced fear activation in standard extinction but did not enhance generalization effects.
  • Findings suggest extinction generalization is a promising avenue for reducing fear and relapse.