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Related Concept Videos

Muscles that Move the Arm01:31

Muscles that Move the Arm

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Nine muscles are involved in arm movements. Two of these, the pectoralis major and latissimus dorsi, originate from the axial skeleton and are called axial muscles. The other seven originate from the scapula and are called the scapular muscles.
The pectoralis major has two origins. Its clavicular head originates on the medial half of the clavicle. In contrast, the sternocostal head originates on the costal cartilages of ribs 1-6, the sternum, and the aponeurosis of the external oblique of the...
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The muscles surrounding the shoulder girdle, including the clavicle and scapula, primarily stabilize the scapula. This stable base allows other muscles to move the humerus effectively. Scapular movements often mirror those of the humerus and extend its range of motion. For instance, raising the arm above the head would not be feasible without simultaneous upward rotation of the scapula.
Anterior Thoracic Muscles
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The upper limb consists of the arm, forearm, wrist, and hand bones. The humerus is the single bone of the upper arm region. Proximally, it has a large, spherical, smooth head that articulates with the glenoid cavity of the scapula to form the glenohumeral or shoulder joint. The margin of the head is the anatomical neck, a residual epiphyseal plate. Laterally it extends to form bony projections called the greater tubercle and the lesser tubercle. Next to the tubercles is the surgical neck, a...
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Fascicles are bundles of muscle fibers in a skeletal muscle. Muscle fascicle arrangement is directly associated with the power and range of motion of various muscles. The configuration of these fascicles can vary, leading to different functional outcomes.
The four primary types of muscle based on fascicle arrangement are:
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Naming Skeletal Muscles01:19

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The naming of the approximately 700 muscles in the human body is based on a set of criteria designed to provide descriptive information about each muscle, making it easier to identify and remember them.
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The Muscular System01:18

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The muscular system is essential to the body's overall structure and function, playing a crucial role in movement, stability, and internal processes. It consists of three distinct types of muscle tissue: the skeletal, the smooth, and the cardiac muscles.
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Oct 9, 2025

The Modified Single-working Portal Technique Using Lasso-loop Stitch with Needle for Arthroscopic Subscapularis Repair
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The Subscapularis Muscle: A Proposed Classification System.

Nicol Zielinska1, R Shane Tubbs2,3,4,5,6, Andrzej Borowski7

  • 1Department of Anatomical Dissection and Donation, Medical University of Lodz, Poland.

Biomed Research International
|December 21, 2021
PubMed
Summary

The sternocleidomastoid (SM) muscle exhibits significant morphological variability, with studies identifying up to nine distinct belly configurations. This variability challenges previous assumptions of constancy and suggests evolutionary influences on muscle anatomy.

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Area of Science:

  • Anatomy
  • Morphology
  • Human Anatomy

Background:

  • The morphological constancy of the sternocleidomastoid (SM) muscle was previously hypothesized.
  • Available literature suggested a fixed number of muscle bellies.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate the morphological variability of the sternocleidomastoid (SM) muscle.
  • To establish a novel classification system for the SM based on its belly count.

Main Methods:

  • Dissection of 66 adult cadavers (45 female, 21 male) from Central European populations.
  • Specimens were preserved in 10% formalin prior to examination.

Main Results:

  • The sternocleidomastoid (SM) muscle was present in all 66 specimens.
  • Nine distinct types of SM based on belly number were identified, ranging from one to nine bellies.
  • The most prevalent types were three-bellied (32%) and four-bellied (30%) SMs, originating from the anterior scapula.

Conclusions:

  • The sternocleidomastoid (SM) muscle demonstrates considerable morphological variability in belly number, likely due to evolutionary factors.
  • The prevalence of three-bellied SM aligns with existing anatomical models.
  • Further research using MRI or ultrasonography is recommended to validate these findings in clinical settings.