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Updated: Oct 8, 2025

Using Practice Testing, Public Speaking, and Source Monitoring to Examine the Influences of Learning Strategies and Stress on Episodic Memory
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Effective external reminders impair the practice effect of time-based prospective memory.

Yunfei Guo1, Jiaqun Gan1, Yifan Ping1

  • 1Faculty of Education, Henan University, Kaifeng, China.

International Journal of Psychology : Journal International De Psychologie
|December 27, 2021
PubMed
Summary

External reminders may hinder the practice effect of time-based prospective memory (TBPM). While reminders initially improve TBPM performance, they can impede long-term gains and time estimation skills after the reminders are removed.

Keywords:
Practice effectReminderTime-based prospective memoryTraining

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Area of Science:

  • Cognitive Psychology
  • Neuroscience
  • Human Memory

Background:

  • Repetitive behavioral training enhances time-based prospective memory (TBPM) performance, known as the practice effect.
  • External reminders are commonly used to aid TBPM task completion, especially when attention to time is low.
  • The potential negative impact of reminders on the TBPM practice effect remains unexplored.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate whether external reminders impede the practice effect of time-based prospective memory (TBPM).
  • To examine the effects of reminders on time monitoring and time estimation abilities in relation to TBPM.
  • To compare the long-term effects of training with and without reminders on TBPM performance.

Main Methods:

  • 81 undergraduate students were randomly assigned to a control group, a reminder group, or a non-reminder group.
  • The reminder group received external reminders during a training stage, while the non-reminder group did not.
  • TBPM performance, time monitoring, and time estimation were assessed during training and a subsequent testing stage without reminders.

Main Results:

  • During training, the reminder group showed fewer time monitoring instances and better TBPM performance compared to the non-reminder group.
  • In the testing stage, the reminder group's TBPM performance did not improve compared to the control group.
  • The non-reminder group exhibited significant improvement in TBPM performance, and both time estimation abilities were less enhanced in the reminder group.

Conclusions:

  • External reminders can interfere with the development of the practice effect in time-based prospective memory.
  • Reliance on reminders may diminish the long-term benefits of behavioral training for TBPM.
  • Reminders might negatively impact the development of time monitoring and estimation skills crucial for sustained TBPM performance.