Z-scan analysis and theoretical studies of dopamine under physiological conditions

Dopamine (DA) is a widely researched catecholamine best known for its role in motor, motivation, addiction, and reward. Disruption in dopamine homeostasis and signaling within the central nervous system (CNS) can lead to disorders such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), schizophrenia, Parkinson's disease, and obsessive-compulsive disorder. In the periphery, circulating DA is stored in blood platelets, and its disruption correlates with pathological conditions such as head and neck paragangliomas, Huntington's chorea, and schizophrenia. Various methods to sensitively and selectively detect dopamine have been reported, but sparse attempts have been made to exploit its intrinsic properties. Previously, we have harnessed dopamine's natural mid-ultraviolet auto-fluorescence to carry out its label-free imaging in live brain tissues. Recently, we used the closed-aperture (CA) Z-scan method to provide the first line of evidence on the existence of dopamine nonlinearity. Here, we utilized this simple, sensitive, and straightforward CA Z-scan technique and coupled this with theoretical simulations to further investigate the nonlinear photophysical properties of DA under physiological conditions. Our combined approach revealed that the nonlinear property of dopamine is governed by the thermo-optical effects, and the CA Z-scan profiles can be modulated by parameters such as phase-shift, orders of absorption, and time dependency. Simple and physiologically relevant systems, such as the platelets, are amenable to Z-scan analysis, thereby empowering us to scrutinize in the future if nonlinearity and its alterations, if any, have a direct bearing on DA homeostasis and associated diseases.