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Action Potential: Phases of Stimulation

Action Potential: Phases of Stimulation

The action potential is a complex electrical event that occurs in excitable cells, such as neurons and muscle cells. It consists of several distinct phases, each with specific characteristics.
Resting Phase:
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Chemical Synapses

Chemical synapses are specialized sites between two neurons or between a neuron and a non-neuronal cell like a muscle, glandular or sensory cell.
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Oct 4, 2025

Brain Membrane Fractionation: An Ex Vivo Approach to Assess Subsynaptic Protein Localization

Brain Membrane Fractionation: An Ex Vivo Approach to Assess Subsynaptic Protein Localization

Published on: May 12, 2017

Protein phase separation hotspots at the presynapse.

Janin Lautenschläger¹

¹Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0XY, UK.

|February 9, 2022

Summary

Protein liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS) organizes the presynapse by clustering synaptic vesicles (SVs). This emerging concept reveals new insights into active zone regulation and synaptic function.

Keywords:

active zone clathrin-mediated endocytosis exocytosis phase separation synapse synapsin

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Related Experiment Videos

Last Updated: Oct 4, 2025

Brain Membrane Fractionation: An Ex Vivo Approach to Assess Subsynaptic Protein Localization

Brain Membrane Fractionation: An Ex Vivo Approach to Assess Subsynaptic Protein Localization

Published on: May 12, 2017

Chemical Dimerization-Induced Protein Condensates on Telomeres

Chemical Dimerization-Induced Protein Condensates on Telomeres

Published on: April 12, 2021

Preparation of Synaptoneurosomes from Mouse Cortex using a Discontinuous Percoll-Sucrose Density Gradient

Preparation of Synaptoneurosomes from Mouse Cortex using a Discontinuous Percoll-Sucrose Density Gradient

Published on: September 17, 2011

Area of Science:

Neuroscience
Molecular Biology
Cell Biology

Background:

Presynaptic processes, including neurotransmitter release and synaptic vesicle (SV) recycling, are crucial for neuronal communication.
While fundamental discoveries have advanced our understanding, certain regulatory mechanisms remain unclear.

Purpose of the Study:

To introduce the emerging concept of protein liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS) at the synapse.
To provide a systematic overview of LLPS in presynaptic proteins and their role in synaptic organization.

Main Methods:

Systematic analysis of LLPS tendencies for over 500 presynaptic proteins.
Highlighting specific LLPS systems (e.g., ELKS/liprin-alpha, Eps15/FCho) and candidate proteins.

Main Results:

Protein LLPS is identified as a key regulator of synaptic vesicle clustering and active zone organization.
Over 500 presynaptic proteins were assessed for LLPS potential, revealing new candidates.

Conclusions:

LLPS offers a novel framework for understanding presynaptic compartment organization.
Emerging LLPS systems and candidate proteins provide new avenues for investigating synaptic regulation.