Assessing the predictive capabilities of design heuristics and coarse-grain simulation toward understanding and...

For industrial applications, covalent immobilization of enzymes provides minimum leakage, recoverability, reusability, and high stability. Yet, the suitability of a given site on the enzyme for immobilization remains a trial-and-error procedure. Here, we investigate the reliability of design heuristics and a coarse-grain molecular simulation in predicting the optimum sites for covalent immobilization of TEM-1 β-lactamase. We utilized Escherichia coli-lysate-based cell-free protein synthesis (CFPS) to produce variants containing a site-specific incorporated unnatural amino acid with a unique moiety to facilitate site directed covalent immobilization. To constrain the number of potential immobilization sites, we investigated the predictive capability of several design heuristics. The suitability of immobilization sites was determined by analyzing expression yields, specific activity, immobilization efficiency, and stability of variants. These experimental findings are compared with coarse-grain simulation of TEM-1 domain stability and thermal stability and analyzed for a priori predictive capabilities. This work demonstrates that the design heuristics successfully identify a subset of locations for experimental validation. Specifically, the nucleotide following amber stop codon and domain stability correlate well with the expression yield and specific activity of the variants, respectively. Our approach highlights the advantages of combining coarse-grain simulation and high-throughput experimentation using CFPS to identify optimal enzyme immobilization sites.