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Solvents

Solvents

A solvent is a substance, most often a liquid, that can dissolve other substances. Here, the substance being dissolved is called a solute. When a solvent and a solute combine, they form a solution - a homogenous mixture of both the solvent and the solute. Water is a universal biological solvent. Its polar structure allows it to dissolve many other polar compounds. The ability of water to dissolve is governed by a balance between water molecules binding to each other and binding to the solute.
A...

Sample Preparation for Analysis: Advanced Techniques

Sample Preparation for Analysis: Advanced Techniques

Accurate analysis of complex samples often requires advanced preparation techniques to achieve reliable and reproducible results. Samples containing inorganic or organic materials can be challenging to dissolve or decompose effectively. Standard sample preparation methods include acid digestion, fusion, dry ashing, and wet digestion.
Acid digestion with strong acids is commonly used to dissolve inorganic materials that are insoluble (do not dissolve) in water. This method can be useful for...

E2 Reaction: Kinetics and Mechanism

E2 Reaction: Kinetics and Mechanism

SN2 substitutions and E2 eliminations of alkyl halides proceed via a concerted pathway. While the nucleophile attacks the alpha carbon in SN2 reactions, it functions as a strong base and abstracts a beta hydrogen in the E2 mechanism. The rate-limiting transition state in E2 elimination reactions is characterized by partially broken carbon–hydrogen and carbon–halogen bonds and a partially formed pi bond between the alpha and beta carbons. The beta hydrogen and halide are eliminated...

Thermal and Photochemical Electrocyclic Reactions: Overview

Thermal and Photochemical Electrocyclic Reactions: Overview

Electrocyclic reactions are reversible reactions. They involve an intramolecular cyclization or ring-opening of a conjugated polyene. Shown below are two examples of electrocyclic reactions. In the first reaction, the formation of the cyclic product is favored. In contrast, in the second reaction, ring-opening is favored due to the high ring strain associated with cyclobutene formation.

Thermal Electrocyclic Reactions: Stereochemistry

Thermal Electrocyclic Reactions: Stereochemistry

The stereochemistry of electrocyclic reactions is strongly influenced by the orbital symmetry of the polyene HOMO. Under thermal conditions, the reaction proceeds via the ground-state HOMO.
Selection Rules: Thermal Activation
Conjugated systems containing an even number of π-electron pairs undergo a conrotatory ring closure. For example, thermal electrocyclization of (2E,4E)-2,4-hexadiene, a conjugated diene containing two π-electron pairs, gives trans-3,4-dimethylcyclobutene.

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Extraction processes with ionic liquids and deep eutectic solvents: emerging trends in rare earth metal recovery.

Philosophical transactions. Series A, Mathematical, physical, and engineering sciences·2026

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Updated: Sep 28, 2025

Preparation of Binary and Ternary Deep Eutectic Systems

Preparation of Binary and Ternary Deep Eutectic Systems

Published on: October 31, 2019

Neoteric deep eutectic solvents: history, recent developments, and catalytic applications.

M Shaibuna¹, Letcy V Theresa¹, K Sreekumar¹

¹Department of Applied Chemistry, Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kochi-22, Kerala, India. kskpolymer.cusat@gmail.com.

|March 29, 2022

Summary

Deep eutectic solvents (DESs) offer a sustainable alternative to traditional solvents, boasting low cost and biodegradability. This review covers their history, preparation, properties, and recent catalytic applications.

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Preparation of Binary and Ternary Deep Eutectic Systems

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Area of Science:

Green Chemistry
Materials Science
Physical Chemistry

Background:

Deep eutectic solvents (DESs) are formed by hydrogen bonding between polar components.
They offer tunable properties, low cost, and biodegradability, serving as alternatives to ionic liquids (ILs) and organic solvents.

Purpose of the Study:

To provide a comprehensive overview of DES development.
To summarize recent advancements in DES applications, particularly in catalysis.
To guide future research in DES fundamental properties and applications.

Main Methods:

Literature review focusing on DES history, classification, preparation, properties, and applications.
Analysis of DES applications in catalysis over the last three years.

Main Results:

DESs are prepared by simple mixing and heating of inexpensive constituents.
The resulting mixtures exhibit both ionic and molecular solvent characteristics.
DESs have demonstrated significant potential in various chemical applications, especially catalysis.

Conclusions:

DESs represent a versatile and sustainable class of solvents.
Their ease of preparation and tunable properties facilitate broad applicability.
Continued research into DESs is crucial for advancing green chemistry and catalysis.