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Related Concept Videos

Anatomical Terminology01:20

Anatomical Terminology

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Knowledge of anatomy is essential to understand human biology and medicine. Anatomists and health care professionals use standard terminology to describe the human body with more precision and no ambiguity. Anatomical terms have mostly Greek and Latin-derived roots. Because these languages are rarely used in conversation, the meaning of words remains the same. Each term is made up of a root in between the prefixes and suffixes. The root of a term often refers to an organ, tissue, or condition,...
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A composite body is a body made up of multiple parts, connected to form a larger, unified object. Each part has its own weight and center of gravity, which must be considered to determine the center of gravity of the composite body. In cases where the density or specific weight is constant, the center of gravity coincides with the centroid.
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Regional Terms01:12

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Regional terms describe anatomy by dividing the body parts into different regions that contain structures involved in contributing similar functions. Using these terms helps increase the accurate description and identification of the particular region of interest or region affected by the disease.
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All objects, neglecting air resistance, fall with the same acceleration towards the Earth's center due to the force exerted by the Earth's gravity. This experimentally determined fact is unexpected because we are so accustomed to the effects of air resistance and friction that we expect light objects to fall slower than heavier ones. People believed that a heavier object had a greater acceleration when falling until Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) proved otherwise. We now know this is...
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Sep 27, 2025

Author Spotlight: Advancements in 3D Optical Imaging for Comprehensive Body Composition Assessment in Modern Research
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What Is a 2021 Reference Body?

Manfred J Müller1, Anja Bosy-Westphal1, Wiebke Braun1

  • 1Institute of Human Nutrition and Food Science, Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel, D 24105 Kiel, Germany.

Nutrients
|April 12, 2022
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

A new 2021 Reference Body model, based on extensive in vivo data, updates the 1975 Reference Man. This advanced human body composition model accounts for modern demographics and technological advancements.

Keywords:
body compositionbody densitybody proteinbody shapebone mineral contentfat free massfat massfunctional body compositionhydrationinsulinleptinorgan massesreference manreference womanresting energy expenditureskeletal muscle mass

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Area of Science:

  • Human anatomy and physiology
  • Biomedical modeling
  • Anthropometry

Background:

  • The 1975 Reference Man model, derived from autopsy data, has limitations due to outdated demographics and technology.
  • Modern populations show increased elderly and overweight individuals, necessitating updated reference data.
  • Technological advancements allow for more precise human body composition analysis.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To develop a state-of-the-art 2021 Reference Body model.
  • To create comprehensive models for both sexes and various age and BMI categories.
  • To provide an updated foundation for radiation dose calculations, metabolic studies, and ergonomic design.

Main Methods:

  • Analysis of in vivo human body composition databases from multiple international sites.
  • Utilized gold-standard methods including whole-body Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and the 4-compartment (4C-) model.
  • Incorporated data from three-dimensional optical scanners for body shape assessment.

Main Results:

  • Detailed 2021 Reference Bodies were constructed for males and females across two age groups (≤40 yrs and >40 yrs).
  • Models were developed for Body Mass Index (BMI) values of 20, 25, 30, and 40 kg/m².
  • Established structure-structure and structure-function relationships at the whole-body level.

Conclusions:

  • The 2021 Reference Body provides a crucial update to anthropometric standards.
  • This new model supports advanced mathematical modeling for metabolic processes and pharmacokinetics.
  • It offers a foundation for defining health within neurohumoral and metabolic control contexts.