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Related Concept Videos

Muscles of the Pelvic Floor and Perineum01:26

Muscles of the Pelvic Floor and Perineum

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The muscles of the pelvic floor and perineum are crucial for supporting the pelvic organs, controlling continence, and aiding in sexual function, childbirth, and core stability. They are typically divided into the superficial perineal layer and the deep pelvic floor layer.
Perineal Layer
The perineum is a diamond-shaped area below the pelvic diaphragm, divided into an anterior urogenital triangle that contains the external genitals and a posterior anal triangle housing the anus. The urogenital...
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Functional Classification of Joints01:09

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Functional Classification of Joints
The functional classification of joints is determined by the amount of mobility between the adjacent bones. Joints are functionally classified as a synarthrosis or immobile joint, an amphiarthrosis or slightly moveable joint, or as a diarthrosis, a freely moveable joint. Fibrous and cartilaginous joints can be functionally classified as either synarthroses  or amphiarthroses, whereas all synovial joints are classified as diarthroses.
Synarthrosis
An...
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Bones of the Lower Limb: Femur and Patella01:16

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The femur is the body's longest and strongest bone spanning the thigh region. Its head articulates with the acetabulum of the hip bone to form the hip joint. A minor indentation on the medial side of the femoral head, called the fovea capitis, serves as the site of attachment for the ligament of the head of the femur. This weak ligament spans the femur and acetabulum and supports the hip joint. The narrowed region below the head is the neck of the femur. The inclination angle between the...
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Classification of Bones01:18

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The bones of the human skeletal system are of varied shapes, sizes, and functions. They can be classified based on their shape and function into four major classes: long bones, short bones, flat bones, and irregular bones. Some classifications include a fifth type, the sesamoid bones, as a separate class, whereas others categorize them under short bones.
Long and Short Bones
The appendicular skeleton, particularly the upper and lower limbs, is primarily made of long and short bones. The...
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The Hyoid Bone01:12

The Hyoid Bone

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The hyoid bone is a small U-shaped bone located in the upper neck at the level of the inferior mandible, with its tips pointing posteriorly. It does not directly articulate with any other bone in the body. The hyoid acts as the attachment site for the tongue, the larynx, and the pharynx. It is held in position by a series of small muscles attached from above or below. These muscles help to move the hyoid up/down or forward/back in coordination with movements of the tongue, larynx, and pharynx...
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Changes in the Appendicular Skeleton with Age01:09

Changes in the Appendicular Skeleton with Age

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The upper and lower limb initially develops as a small bulge called a limb bud, which appears on the lateral side of the early embryo. The upper limb bud appears near the end of the fourth week of development, with the lower limb bud appearing shortly after.
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Sep 24, 2025

Two-step Approach to Explore Early- and Late-stages of Organ Formation in the Avian Model: The Thymus and Parathyroid Glands Organogenesis Paradigm
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Form and function in the avian pelvis.

Tanner M Frank1, Peter Dodson2,3, Brandon P Hedrick4

  • 1Department of Integrative Biology, University of California-Berkeley, Berkeley, California, USA.

Journal of Morphology
|May 9, 2022
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Bird pelvic shape evolved significantly with different locomotion types, especially swimming. Despite extensive exploration of pelvic form, evolutionary constraints were likely loosened by flight, leading to convergence.

Keywords:
Avesconvergencedisparitygeometric morphometrics

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Area of Science:

  • Evolutionary Biology
  • Comparative Anatomy
  • Biomechanics

Background:

  • The avian pelvis is crucial for hindlimb function, connecting limbs to the axial skeleton and muscle attachment.
  • Understanding pelvic morphology evolution is key to grasping avian locomotor diversification.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To analyze how diverse bird locomotor modes influenced avian pelvic morphology evolution.
  • To investigate relationships between pelvic shape, ecology, phylogeny, and allometry.
  • To assess morphospace exploration during avian diversification.

Main Methods:

  • Two-dimensional geometric morphometric analysis of pelves from 163 bird species.
  • Phylogenetic comparative analyses to account for evolutionary relationships.
  • Disparity analyses to quantify morphospace exploration over time.

Main Results:

  • Locomotor categories significantly discriminated pelvic shape and size, even after correcting for phylogeny.
  • Distinct pelvic shapes were observed in hindlimb-propelled swimming birds (narrow, elongated ilia).
  • Phylogeny correlated with shape, but ecology and allometry explained limited variation; locomotor groups overlapped.

Conclusions:

  • Avian pelvic morphology shows significant adaptation to locomotor modes, particularly swimming.
  • Avian lineages extensively explored pelvic morphospace, with widespread convergence observed throughout the Cenozoic.
  • The evolution of flight may have relaxed evolutionary constraints on pelvic morphology.