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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Sep 23, 2025

Errors as a Means of Reducing Impulsive Food Choice

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Training Willpower: Reducing Costs and Valuing Effort.

Michel Audiffren¹, Nathalie André¹, Roy F Baumeister²

¹Research Centre on Cognition and Learning, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, University of Poitiers, Poitiers, France.

Frontiers in Neuroscience

|May 16, 2022

Summary

Training programs can enhance effortful control capacity, improving executive functions and self-control. Physical and mindfulness exercises show promise for strengthening willpower through neural mechanisms like increased efficiency or motivation.

Keywords:

cognitive training effort effortful control executive functions exercise training mindfulness training self-control transfer

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Area of Science:

Cognitive Neuroscience
Psychology

Background:

Effortful control is an adaptive function involving salience network decisions, top-down modulation of neural activity, and subjective cost awareness.
Previous models outlined the neurophysiological bases of mental effort but did not fully address its trainability.

Purpose of the Study:

To investigate whether effortful control capacity can be improved through training programs.
To explore the empirical evidence and neural mechanisms underlying potential gains in willpower.

Main Methods:

A comprehensive review of 63 meta-analyses was conducted to assess the effectiveness of training programs on effortful tasks.
Two primary neural mechanisms for improving effortful control were proposed: enhanced neural efficiency and increased motivation via operant conditioning.

Main Results:

The review confirmed that training programs significantly improve performance in tasks requiring executive functions and self-control, with effect sizes ranging from small to large.
Physical and mindfulness exercises were identified as particularly promising training modalities.

Conclusions:

Effortful control capacity is trainable, with evidence supporting improvements in executive functions and self-control.
Neural mechanisms involve either increased efficiency of task-related brain regions or enhanced motivation to exert effort.
Recommendations are provided for optimizing future interventional studies on training effortful control.