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Reinforcement Schedules

Reinforcement Schedules

Positive reinforcement is a powerful method for teaching new behaviors to both animals and humans. B.F. Skinner demonstrated this with his experiments using rats in a Skinner box. When a rat pressed a lever, it received a food pellet. This immediate reward encouraged the rat to repeat the behavior. This method, where a reward follows every instance of the behavior, is known as continuous reinforcement. It is highly effective for establishing new behaviors quickly.
Once a behavior is learned,...

Associative Learning

Associative Learning

Associative learning is a fundamental concept in behavioral psychology, wherein a connection is established between two stimuli or events, leading to a learned response. This process is critical in understanding how behaviors are acquired and modified. Conditioning, the mechanism through which associations are formed, can be divided into two main types: classical conditioning and operant conditioning, each elucidating different aspects of associative learning.
Classical conditioning, also known...

Reinforcement

Reinforcement

Positive and negative reinforcement are key concepts in operant conditioning, a learning process where the consequences of a behavior affect the likelihood of that behavior being repeated.
Positive reinforcement occurs when a behavior is followed by the presentation of a rewarding stimulus, increasing the frequency of that behavior. For example:

Observational Learning

Observational Learning

Albert Bandura's observational learning, also known as imitation or modeling, occurs when a person observes and imitates another's behavior. It is a quicker process than operant conditioning. A well-known example is the Bobo doll study, where children who saw an adult acting aggressively towards the doll were more likely to act aggressively when left alone, compared to those who observed a nonaggressive adult. Many psychologists view observational learning as a form of latent learning...

Operant Conditioning

Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning, a key concept in behavioral psychology, involves using reinforcement and punishment to alter the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. B.F. introduced this type of conditioning. Skinner focused on voluntary behaviors and the consequences that follow them, influencing whether these behaviors will be strengthened or diminished.
Reinforcement in operant conditioning can be positive or negative, both of which serve to increase the likelihood of a behavior. Positive...

Multi-input and Multi-variable systems

Multi-input and Multi-variable systems

Cruise control systems in cars are designed as multi-input systems to maintain a driver's desired speed while compensating for external disturbances such as changes in terrain. The block diagram for a cruise control system typically includes two main inputs: the desired speed set by the driver and any external disturbances, such as the incline of the road. By adjusting the engine throttle, the system maintains the vehicle's speed as close to the desired value as possible.
In the absence...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Sep 22, 2025

Operant Procedures for Assessing Behavioral Flexibility in Rats

Operant Procedures for Assessing Behavioral Flexibility in Rats

Published on: February 15, 2015

Flexibility in valenced reinforcement learning computations across development.

Kate Nussenbaum¹, Juan A Velez¹, Bradli T Washington¹

¹Department of Psychology, New York University, New York, New York, USA.

Child Development

|May 21, 2022

Summary

Children, adolescents, and adults adapt their learning strategies based on environmental rewards. This study shows improved flexibility in weighting positive versus negative outcomes with age.

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Area of Science:

Cognitive Science
Developmental Psychology
Neuroscience

Background:

Learning involves integrating positive and negative outcomes, influenced by environmental reward statistics.
Adaptability in weighting these outcomes is crucial for effective learning.

Purpose of the Study:

To investigate how children, adolescents, and adults adapt their weighting of better-than-expected and worse-than-expected outcomes during reinforcement learning.
To examine age-related differences in this adaptive learning process.

Main Methods:

Participants (N=142, 8-25 years old) engaged in a reinforcement learning task across two contexts with differing reward structures.
Reinforcement learning modeling was employed to analyze participants' choice behavior and valence biases.

Main Results:

Participants across all age groups successfully shifted their valence biases to match the environmental reward structure.
Exploratory analyses indicated that context-dependent flexibility in learning strengthened with increasing age.

Conclusions:

Individuals demonstrate adaptive learning by adjusting their focus on positive or negative outcomes based on environmental context.
Cognitive flexibility in reinforcement learning develops throughout childhood and adolescence into adulthood.