Encoding Stability into Laser Powder Bed Fusion Monitoring Using Temporal Features and Pore Density Modelling

In laser powder bed fusion (LPBF), melt pool instability can lead to the development of pores in printed parts, reducing the part's structural strength. While camera-based monitoring systems have been introduced to improve melt pool stability, these systems only measure melt pool stability in limited, indirect ways. We propose that melt pool stability can be improved by explicitly encoding stability into LPBF monitoring systems through the use of temporal features and pore density modelling. We introduce the temporal features, in the form of temporal variances of common LPBF monitoring features (e.g., melt pool area, intensity), to explicitly quantify printing stability. Furthermore, we introduce a neural network model trained to link these video features directly to pore densities estimated from the CT scans of previously printed parts. This model aims to reduce the number of online printer interventions to only those that are required to avoid porosity. These contributions are then implemented in a full LPBF monitoring system and tested on prints using 316L stainless steel. Results showed that our explicit stability quantification improved the correlation between our predicted pore densities and true pore densities by up to 42%.