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Related Concept Videos

Retroviruses02:33

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Retroviruses and retrotransposons both insert copies of their genetic elements into the genome of the host cell. Thus, the viral genes are passed on when the host genome is replicated or translated. A typical retroviral DNA sequence contains 3-4 genes that encode the different proteins required for its structural assembly and function as a molecular parasite. This DNA is transcribed into a single mRNA, which is very similar in structure to conventional mRNAs, i.e., it is capped at the 5’...
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LTR retrotransposons are class I transposable elements with long terminal repeats flanking an internal coding region. These elements are less abundant in mammals compared to other class I transposable elements. About 8 percent of human genomic DNA comprises LTR retrotransposons. Some of the common examples of LTR retrotransposons are Ty elements in yeast and Copia elements in Drosophila.
The internal coding region of LTR retrotransposons and their mechanism of transposition closely resembles a...
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Non-LTR Retrotransposons03:18

Non-LTR Retrotransposons

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As the name suggests, non-LTR retrotransposons lack the long terminal repeats characteristic of the LTR retrotransposons. Additionally, both LTR and non-LTR retrotransposons use distinct mechanisms of mobilization. Non-LTR retrotransposons are further divided into two classes - Long interspersed nuclear elements (LINEs) and short interspersed nuclear elements (SINEs), both of which occur abundantly in most mammals, including humans. Some of the active non-LTR retrotransposons in humans are L1...
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Retroviruses have a single-stranded RNA genome that undergoes a special form of replication. Once the retrovirus has entered the host cell, an enzyme called reverse transcriptase synthesizes double-stranded DNA from the retroviral RNA genome. This DNA copy of the genome is then integrated into the host’s genome inside the nucleus via an enzyme called integrase. Consequently, the retroviral genome is transcribed into RNA whenever the host’s genome is transcribed, allowing the...
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Viral Mutations00:36

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A mutation is a change in the sequence of bases of DNA or RNA in a genome. Some mutations occur during replication of the genome due to errors made by the polymerase enzymes that replicate DNA or RNA. Unlike DNA polymerase, RNA polymerase is prone to errors because it is not capable of “proofreading” its work. Viruses with RNA-based genomes, like HIV, therefore accrue mutations faster than viruses with DNA-based genomes. Because mutation and recombination provide the raw material...
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Retroviruses are RNA viruses that have been shown to cause cancers in diverse species, including chickens, mice, cats, and monkeys. The RNA genomes of these viruses are first reverse-transcribed into single and then double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) copies. This dsDNA called proviral DNA then integrates into the host genome. Subsequently, the host cell transcribes the proviral DNA in concert with the chromosomal DNA. This leads to the production of viral RNA and proteins that assemble at the host...
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Analysis of LINE-1 Retrotransposition at the Single Nucleus Level
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Analysis of LINE-1 Retrotransposition at the Single Nucleus Level

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Accelerated Evolution by Diversity-Generating Retroelements.

Benjamin R Macadangdang1,2, Sara K Makanani2,3,4, Jeff F Miller2,4,5

  • 1Division of Neonatology and Developmental Biology, Department of Pediatrics, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, California, USA;

Annual Review of Microbiology
|June 1, 2022
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Diversity-generating retroelements (DGRs) accelerate protein evolution through mutagenic retrohoming. These genetic elements rapidly generate functional protein diversity in microbes and viruses by modifying DNA template repeats.

Keywords:
adaptationdiversity-generating retroelementsevolutiongenetic variationmutagenesisretroelements

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Area of Science:

  • Microbiology
  • Molecular Biology
  • Genetics

Background:

  • Diversity-generating retroelements (DGRs) are genetic elements found in bacteria, archaea, and viruses.
  • They are responsible for the rapid evolution of ligand-binding proteins, crucial for microbial and viral functions.
  • DGRs are widespread in microbial communities and certain environments.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To provide a comprehensive review of the mechanism and consequences of accelerated protein evolution driven by DGRs.
  • To elucidate the novel mutagenic retrohoming process utilized by DGRs.
  • To highlight the functional diversity generated by DGRs in various biological contexts.

Main Methods:

  • Review of existing literature on DGRs and their mechanisms.
  • Analysis of DGR distribution and enrichment in microbial taxa and environments.
  • Detailed examination of the mutagenic retrohoming process, including template repeat (TR) and variable repeat (VR) interactions.

Main Results:

  • DGRs employ a unique mutagenic retrohoming mechanism for targeted protein diversification.
  • This process involves copying information from a DNA template repeat (TR) to an RNA intermediate, followed by selective mutagenesis and transfer to a variable repeat (VR).
  • The unidirectional information flow allows for repeated rounds of optimization, leading to enhanced protein function, particularly in cell-surface and receptor-binding proteins.

Conclusions:

  • DGRs are powerful drivers of accelerated protein evolution in the microbial world.
  • Their mechanism of mutagenic retrohoming allows for the generation of vast functional diversity.
  • Understanding DGRs offers insights into microbial adaptation and the evolution of protein function.