Primate malaria: An emerging challenge of zoonotic malaria in Indonesia

The emergence of zoonotic malaria in different parts of the world, including Indonesia poses a challenge to the current malaria control and elimination program that target global malaria elimination at 2030. The reported cases in human include Plasmodium knowlesi, P. cynomolgi and P. inui, in South and Southeast Asian region and P. brazilianum and P. simium in Latin America. All are naturally found in the Old and New-world monkeys, macaques spp. This review focuses on the currently available data that may represent primate malaria as an emerging challenge of zoonotic malaria in Indonesia, the distribution of non-human primates and the malaria parasites it carries, changes in land use and deforestation that impact the habitat and intensifies interaction between the non-human primate and the human which facilitate spill-over of the pathogens. Although available data in Indonesia is very limited, a growing body of evidence indicate that the challenge of zoonotic malaria is immense and alerts to the need to conduct mitigation efforts through multidisciplinary approach involving environmental management, non-human primates conservation, disease management and vector control.