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Steel manufacturing is a multi-stage process that begins by smelting iron ore into cast iron in a blast furnace. This initial stage involves layering iron ore with coke, a type of fuel, and crushed limestone within the furnace. The coke is ignited with a high volume of air, leading to the creation of carbon monoxide, which acts to reduce the iron ore to pure iron.
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Retarders are chemical admixtures designed to extend the setting time, which is especially useful when there is a delay in sequential concrete pours to prevent cold joints and to achieve a cohesive structure. Retarders, when used in appropriate amounts, can also enhance the architectural appearance of exposed aggregate finishes.
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Sep 7, 2025

Author Spotlight: Advancing Place-Based Biochar Production for Ecosystem Restoration and Soil Health
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Charon's refractory factory.

Ujjwal Raut1,2,3, Benjamin D Teolis1,2,3, Joshua A Kammer2

  • 1Center for Laboratory Astrophysics and Space Science Experiments (CLASSE), Space Science and Engineering, Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, TX 78238, USA.

Science Advances
|June 17, 2022
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Plutonian methane photolysis on Charon creates a latitude-dependent refractory distribution, explaining observed darkening. Complex refractories form at mid-latitudes, while polar regions may develop redder materials from solar wind radiolysis.

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Area of Science:

  • Planetary Science
  • Astrochemistry
  • Photochemistry

Background:

  • Charon, Pluto's largest moon, exhibits a unique albedo pattern with darker polar regions.
  • The composition and distribution of surface materials on Charon are not fully understood.
  • Methane is present in the outer solar system, and its interaction with stellar radiation is a key process.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate the photolytic processes affecting methane on Charon.
  • To explain the observed poleward darkening on Charon.
  • To determine the composition and distribution of photoproducts generated from methane.

Main Methods:

  • Laboratory experiments simulating photolysis of methane under Charon-like conditions.
  • Exospheric modeling to predict the distribution of photolytic products.
  • Analysis of New Horizons mission imagery for surface albedo patterns.

Main Results:

  • Dynamic Ly-α photolysis of methane generates photolytic refractories on Charon.
  • The distribution of these refractories increases with latitude, consistent with poleward darkening.
  • The flux ratio (φ) of methane to Ly-α photons controls photoproduct composition, with complex refractories at mid-latitudes and ethane at high latitudes.

Conclusions:

  • Methane photolysis is a significant process shaping Charon's surface.
  • Ethane, a primary photoproduct at high latitudes, does not explain the polar red hue.
  • Solar wind radiolysis of polar frost post-sunrise may synthesize the observed redder, complex refractories, explaining Charon's unique albedo.