Biotransformation of sulfamethoxazole by microalgae: Removal efficiency, pathways, and mechanisms

Recently, the biotransformation of sulfamethoxazole (SMX) by microalgae has attracted increasing interest. In particular, cytochrome P450 (CYP450) has been suggested to be the main enzymatic contributor to this biodegradation. However, the molecular evidence of CYP450 enzymes being involved in SMX biodegradation remains relatively unclear, hindering its applicability. Herein, the biodegradation of SMX by Chlorella sorokiniana (C. sorokiniana) was investigated, and comprehensively elucidated the reaction mechanism underlying CYP450-mediated SMX metabolism. C. sorokiniana was able to efficiently remove over 80% of SMX mainly through biodegradation, in which CYP450 enzymes responded substantially to metabolize SMX in cells. Additionally, screening of transformation products (TPs) revealed that N⁴-hydroxylation-SMX (TP270) was the main TP in the SMX biodegradation pathway of microalgae. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulation suggested that the aniline of SMX was the most prone to undergo metabolism, while density functional theory (DFT) indicated that SMX was metabolized by CYP450 enzymes through H-abstraction-OH-rebound reaction. Collectively, this work reveals key details of the hydroxylamine group of SMX, elucidates the SMX biodegradation pathway involving CYP450 in microalgae in detail, and accelerates the development of using microalgae-mediated CYP450 to eliminate antibiotics.