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Related Concept Videos

Double Resonance Techniques: Overview01:12

Double Resonance Techniques: Overview

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Double resonance techniques in Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy involve the simultaneous application of two different frequencies or radiofrequency pulses to manipulate and observe two distinct nuclear spins. One important application of double resonance is spin decoupling, which selectively suppresses coupling with one type of nucleus while observing the NMR signal from another nucleus, simplifying the spectrum and enhancing resolution.
Spin decoupling is usually achieved by...
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Atomic Nuclei: Nuclear Spin01:08

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All atomic particles possess an intrinsic angular momentum, or 'spin'. Electrons, protons, and neutrons each have a spin value of ½, although protons and neutrons in nuclei may have higher half-integer spins owing to energetic factors.
Atomic nuclei have a net nuclear spin, , which can have an integer or half-integer value. In atomic nuclei, the spins of protons are paired against each other but not with neutrons, and vice versa. Consequently, an even number of protons does not...
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¹H NMR Signal Multiplicity: Splitting Patterns01:13

¹H NMR Signal Multiplicity: Splitting Patterns

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When protons A and X are coupled, their nuclear spin energy levels are slightly modified. This is because the energy required to excite proton A to a spin state parallel to proton X is slightly different from the energy required for it to become anti-parallel to spin X. Consequently, there are two possible excitation frequencies for A (A1 and A2), depending on the spin state of X, and vice versa. The mutual nature of coupling implies that the difference between frequencies A1 and A2, indicated...
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X-ray Diffraction of Biological Samples01:10

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X-ray diffraction or XRD is an analytical tool that utilizes X-rays to study ordered structures such as crystalline organic and inorganic samples, polycrystalline materials, proteins, carbohydrates, and drugs.
According to Bragg's law, when X-rays strike the sample positioned on a stage, the rays are  scattered by the electron clouds around the sample atoms. The  X-ray diffraction or scattering is caused by constructive interference of the X-ray waves that reflect off the internal...
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Nuclear Overhauser Enhancement (NOE)01:07

Nuclear Overhauser Enhancement (NOE)

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Irradiation of a spin-active nucleus causes an increase or decrease in the signal intensity of neighboring nuclei that are not necessarily chemically bonded or involved in J-coupling.  This phenomenon, called the Nuclear Overhauser Enhancement (NOE), results from through-space interactions between the nuclear spins. The NOE effect decreases with increasing internuclear distance and is generally not observed beyond 4 angstroms. In NOE, dipole-dipole interactions between neighboring...
819
Proton (¹H) NMR: Chemical Shift01:07

Proton (¹H) NMR: Chemical Shift

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Organic molecules primarily contain carbon and hydrogen atoms. While all the hydrogen isotopes are NMR-active, protium or hydrogen-1 is the most abundant. It has a significant energy separation between its nuclear spin states due to its large gyromagnetic ratio. As per Boltzmann's distribution, an increase in the energy separation implies a greater excess population of nuclei available for excitation, resulting in a strong NMR absorption signal.
Absorption signals of all the protium nuclei...
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Related Experiment Video

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Neutron Crystallography Data Collection and Processing for Modelling Hydrogen Atoms in Protein Structures
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Selected topics in diffraction with protons and nuclei: past, present, and future.

L Frankfurt1,2, V Guzey3, A Stasto2

  • 1Sackler School of Exact Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, 69978, Israel.

Reports on Progress in Physics. Physical Society (Great Britain)
|July 19, 2022
PubMed
Summary

This review explores diffraction phenomena in particle collisions, integrating perturbative quantum chromodynamics (QCD) and non-perturbative models. It highlights experimental results and identifies future research directions for understanding fundamental particle interactions.

Keywords:
QCDcolor fluctuationsdiffractiondipole modelnuclear shadowingparton distributionssaturation

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Area of Science:

  • High-energy particle physics
  • Quantum chromodynamics
  • Nuclear physics

Background:

  • Diffraction is a key phenomenon in high-energy particle collisions.
  • Understanding diffraction requires combining perturbative and non-perturbative models.
  • Experimental data from HERA and LHC provide crucial insights.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review diffraction phenomena in various collision types.
  • To explore the interplay between perturbative QCD and non-perturbative models.
  • To identify open questions for future experiments.

Main Methods:

  • Review of inclusive diffraction in deep inelastic scattering (DIS).
  • Phenomenology of dipole models and parton saturation.
  • Analysis of diffractive vector meson production.
  • Formalism of color fluctuations and coherent/incoherent diffraction.

Main Results:

  • Key experimental results from HERA and LHC are discussed.
  • The interplay between different theoretical models is examined.
  • Soft and hard diffraction phenomena are analyzed across various collision systems.

Conclusions:

  • Significant progress has been made in understanding diffraction.
  • Open questions remain, particularly concerning photon-induced reactions.
  • Future colliders like the electron-ion collider and FCC offer promising avenues for research.