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The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which its vapor pressure is equal to ambient atmospheric pressure. Since the vapor pressure of a solution is lowered due to the presence of nonvolatile solutes, it stands to reason that the solution’s boiling point will subsequently be increased. Vapor pressure increases with temperature, and so a solution will require a higher temperature than will pure solvent to achieve any given vapor pressure, including one...
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Heating a crystalline solid increases the average energy of its atoms, molecules, or ions, and the solid gets hotter. At some point, the added energy becomes large enough to partially overcome the forces holding the molecules or ions of the solid in their fixed positions, and the solid begins the process of transitioning to the liquid state or melting. At this point, the temperature of the solid stops rising, despite the continual input of heat, and it remains constant until all of the solid is...
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States of Water

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Water exists in any one of the three classical states: solid (ice), liquid (water), and gas (steam or water vapor). The state of water depends on i) the intermolecular forces that draw molecules together and ii) the kinetic energy that leads to movements that pull them apart.
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Some solids can transition directly into the gaseous state, bypassing the liquid state, via a process known as sublimation. At room temperature and standard pressure, a piece of dry ice (solid CO2) sublimes, appearing to gradually disappear without ever forming any liquid. Snow and ice sublimate at temperatures below the melting point of water, a slow process that may be accelerated by winds and the reduced atmospheric pressures at high altitudes. When solid iodine is warmed, the solid sublimes...
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Enthalpy changes are typically tabulated for reactions in which both the reactants and products are at the same conditions. A standard state is a commonly accepted set of conditions used as a reference point for the determination of properties under other different conditions. For chemists, the IUPAC standard state refers to materials under a pressure of 1 bar and solutions at 1 M and does not specify a temperature. Many thermochemical tables list values with a standard state of 1 atm. Because...
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Intermolecular forces are attractive forces that exist between molecules. They dictate several bulk properties, such as melting points, boiling points, and solubilities (miscibilities) of substances. Molar mass, molecular shape, and polarity affect the strength of different intermolecular forces, which influence the magnitude of physical properties across a family of molecules.
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Updated: Sep 3, 2025

Ice Generation and the Heat and Mass Transfer Phenomena of Introducing Water to a Cold Bath of Brine
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How Can Ice Emerge at 0 °C?

Alexei V Finkelstein1,2,3, Sergiy O Garbuzynskiy1, Bogdan S Melnik1

  • 1Institute of Protein Research, Russian Academy of Sciences, 142290 Pushchino, Russia.

Biomolecules
|July 27, 2022
PubMed
Summary

Ice nucleation above -30°C requires surfaces. Ice-initiating substances like AgI, CuO, and Pseudomonas syringae significantly lower freezing points, while antifreeze proteins inhibit this process.

Keywords:
Pseudomonas syringaefreezing point of waterice nucleationice-binding proteinmelting point of icetime of freezing

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Area of Science:

  • Physical Chemistry
  • Materials Science
  • Biophysics

Background:

  • Classical nucleation theory posits that bulk water freezes below -30°C.
  • Above this temperature, ice nucleation necessitates ice-binding surfaces.
  • Nucleation temperature and rate are influenced by surface structure complementarity.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate the effect of various ice-initiating substances on water freezing temperatures.
  • To compare the efficacy of different ice nucleators, including inorganic materials and biological agents.
  • To assess the inhibitory effect of antifreeze proteins on ice nucleation.

Main Methods:

  • Experimental determination of ice nucleation temperatures in buffer and water.
  • Addition of ice-initiating substances: silver iodide (AgI), copper oxide (CuO), and Pseudomonas syringae.
  • Evaluation of antifreeze protein's impact on ice nucleation induced by these agents.

Main Results:

  • Uninitiated water/buffer froze between -8°C and -15°C.
  • AgI and CuO lowered freezing points to -3°C to -7°C.
  • Pseudomonas syringae initiated ice nucleation from -1°C to -2°C.
  • Antifreeze proteins inhibited the ice-nucleating activity of all tested agents.

Conclusions:

  • Ice-initiating substances significantly enhance ice nucleation at higher temperatures.
  • Biological agents like Pseudomonas syringae are highly effective ice nucleators.
  • Antifreeze proteins can effectively suppress ice formation induced by various nucleators.