Distinct cell proliferation patterns underlying the development of defensive crests in Daphnia longicephala

The freshwater crustacean Daphnia is well known for its expression of morphological defenses in the presence of predators. Research into this phenomenon has mostly centered on the ecology and evolution of Daphnia defenses; information is limited on the cellular mechanisms that underlie site-specific tissue growth. We aimed to determine these cellular mechanisms, specifically those associated with the development of defensive crests in D. longicephala. With the help of a cell-proliferation assay we monitored changes in the epidermal tissue of naïve and predator-exposed D. longicephala. Based on our results, we propose that cell division is delayed in favor of cell growth, which results in crest formation. Further, we identify specific regions of proliferative activity in a time-dependent manner. Defense development starts in the ventral region, before extending in the cranial and then dorsal directions. We demonstrate that these cellular changes begin as early as 2 h after predator exposure. Our results provide new insights into the cellular processes underlying morphological defense expression in Daphnia.