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Related Concept Videos

Spinal Cord Injury ll: Pathophysiology01:14

Spinal Cord Injury ll: Pathophysiology

Spinal cord injury progresses through two interconnected phases: primary injury and secondary injury.Primary InjuryPrimary injury happens at the moment of trauma and involves immediate mechanical damage to the spinal cord.Compression happens when broken vertebrae, herniated discs, or accumulating blood (such as a hematoma) press directly against the spinal cord, distorting its normal shape and function. In cases of contusion, the cord is bruised by a blunt force (like penetrating injuries or...
Herniated Intervertebral Disc l: Introduction01:29

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Intervertebral disc herniation refers to the displacement of the nucleus pulposus (the gel-like inner core of the disc) through a tear or weakened area in the annulus fibrosus (the outer fibrous ring). The displaced disc material extends beyond the normal boundaries of the disc space and may compress or irritate nearby spinal nerve roots or, less commonly, the spinal cord.Etiology and Risk FactorsHerniation commonly results from degeneration, in which aging reduces disc hydration and...
Secondary Spinal Cord Injury llI: Pathophysiology01:25

Secondary Spinal Cord Injury llI: Pathophysiology

Early Ischemia and Ionic ImbalanceWithin minutes of spinal cord injury, a secondary cascade begins, progressing over hours to weeks. Vascular damage reduces blood flow, causing ischemia and mitochondrial dysfunction. ATP depletion leads to ion pump failure, membrane depolarization, sodium influx, potassium efflux, and water accumulation, resulting in cellular swelling. Increased intracellular calcium further disrupts mitochondria and accelerates cellular injury.Excitotoxicity and Neuronal...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 21, 2026

A Contusive Model of Unilateral Cervical Spinal Cord Injury Using the Infinite Horizon Impactor
07:28

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Spinal Injuries in the Overhead Athlete.

Robert G Watkins1, David Chang2, Robert G Watkins2

  • 1Marina Spine Center, 4640 Admiralty Way, Suite 600, Marina del Rey, CA, 90292, USA. robertwatkinsmd@yahoo.com.

Current Reviews in Musculoskeletal Medicine
|September 29, 2022
PubMed
Summary

Overhead athletes need a systematic approach for diagnosis, treatment, and safe return to sport. Cervical and lumbar surgeries show varied success rates and return-to-play times, with cervical foraminotomy offering the fastest but riskiest recovery.

Keywords:
AthleteCervicalLumbarOverheadSpineSport

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Area of Science:

  • Orthopedic Surgery
  • Sports Medicine
  • Spinal Surgery

Background:

  • Overhead athletes face unique challenges in returning to sport after spinal injury.
  • Accurate diagnosis and effective treatment are crucial for timely and safe return to play.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review current data on surgical outcomes for overhead athletes with cervical and lumbar spine conditions.
  • To evaluate the effectiveness and return-to-play rates associated with different surgical interventions.

Main Methods:

  • Review of recent literature on surgical treatments for cervical and lumbar spine pathologies in athletes.
  • Analysis of success rates, return-to-play timelines, and complication incidence for various procedures.

Main Results:

  • Cervical foraminotomy demonstrates high return-to-play rates but increased revision surgery needs.
  • Cervical artificial disc replacement shows promise but carries unknown failure risks in elite athletes.
  • Cervical fusion is effective but has longer recovery and adjacent level pathology risks.
  • Lumbar discectomy is well-established; lumbar fusion and disc replacement are rarely used in elite athletes.

Conclusions:

  • A systematic approach is essential for diagnosing, treating, and facilitating return to sport for overhead athletes.
  • Surgical outcomes vary significantly between different procedures, requiring careful consideration of risks and benefits.