Ophthalmic manifestations of pulmonary diseases

Patients suffering from pulmonary diseases often have ophthalmic manifestations, some of which may be critical and disabling. The purpose of this article is to discuss the ophthalmologic manifestations of pulmonary diseases. This is achieved by describing a typical ophthalmologic examination, starting with the external structures and ocular adnexae and proceeding through the structures of the eye, including the retina, optic nerve, and orbit.