Integrated exposure assessment and potential risks of neonicotinoids in vegetables from three different sources in Zhejiang, China (2018-2020)

Dietary exposure is the primary route of human exposure to neonicotinoids (neonics), and vegetables are essential foods in people's daily diet. However, the residues and potential health risks of neonics in vegetables from different sources have not been well examined. In this study, we collected 1588 samples of vegetables from organic vegetable bases, farmer's markets, and supermarkets in Zhejiang, China. Three frequently used neonics, acetamiprid, imidacloprid, and thiamethoxam, were selected and analyzed. We investigated the residue, temporal and spatial distribution, and potential health risks. Cowpea was detected with the highest mean imidacloprid-equivalent total neonics (IMI_RPF) by value of 655 μg/kg. Vegetable samples from farmer's markets were detected with the highest mean IMI_RPF by value of 168 μg/kg, followed by supermarkets (134 μg/kg) and the lowest in organic vegetable bases (76.9 μg/kg). The outcomes of integrated risk assessment for dietary intake of those three neonics in vegetables were all within the safety.