Three-Dimensional Constructive Interference in Steady State (3D CISS) Imaging and Clinical Applications in Brain...

Three-dimensional constructive interference in steady state (3D CISS) is a steady-state gradient-echo sequence in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) that has been used in an increasing number of applications in the study of brain disease in recent years. Owing to the very high spatial resolution, the strong hyperintensity of the cerebrospinal fluid signal and the high contrast-to-noise ratio, 3D CISS can be employed in a wide range of scenarios, ranging from the traditional study of cranial nerves, the ventricular system, the subarachnoid cisterns and related pathology to more recently discussed applications, such as the fundamental role it can assume in the setting of acute ischemic stroke, vascular malformations, infections and several brain tumors. In this review, after briefly summarizing its fundamental physical principles, we examine in detail the various applications of 3D CISS in brain imaging, providing numerous representative cases, so as to help radiologists improve its use in imaging protocols in daily clinical practice.