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Related Concept Videos

Glucagon-like Receptor Agonists01:24

Glucagon-like Receptor Agonists

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Incretins include glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) and glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP), which stimulate insulin secretion post-meals. In type 2 diabetes, GIP's efficacy is reduced, making GLP-1 a viable drug target. GIP originates from preproGIP.
GLP-1, when administered in high doses intravenously, triggers insulin secretion, inhibits glucagon release, slows gastric emptying, reduces food intake, and restores normal insulin secretion. However, its rapid inactivation by...
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Hypoglycemia and Glucagon01:15

Hypoglycemia and Glucagon

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Without prolonged fasting, healthy individuals maintain blood glucose levels above 3.5 mM due to a well-adapted neuroendocrine counterregulatory system that effectively prevents acute hypoglycemia, a potentially life-threatening condition. The primary clinical scenarios for hypoglycemia encompass diabetes treatment, inappropriate production of endogenous insulin or insulin-like substances by tumors, and the use of glucose-lowering agents in non-diabetic individuals. Notably, hypoglycemia in the...
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Hormones Regulating Blood Glucose01:16

Hormones Regulating Blood Glucose

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Insulin is released by beta cells of the pancreas when blood glucose levels are high. It facilitates glucose absorption and utilization in insulin-dependent cells with insulin receptors on their plasma membranes. Insulin promotes glucose uptake by increasing the number of glucose transport proteins in the cell membrane, allowing glucose to enter the cell. As a result, glucose utilization and ATP production are enhanced.
In addition to accelerating glucose uptake and utilization, insulin has...
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Glucose Homeostasis: Pancreatic Islets and Insulin Secretion01:27

Glucose Homeostasis: Pancreatic Islets and Insulin Secretion

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The pancreatic islets comprising only 1%-2% of the volume are highly vascularized and innervated mini-organs. They contain five endocrine cell types, including β cells that secrete insulin, which is synthesized as a single polypeptide chain, preproinsulin, processed to proinsulin, and finally to insulin and C-peptide. This process is complex and regulated, involving the Golgi complex, the endoplasmic reticulum, and the secretory granules of the β cell.
Insulin and C-peptide are...
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Insulin: Biosynthesis, Chemistry, and Preparation01:25

Insulin: Biosynthesis, Chemistry, and Preparation

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The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of pancreatic β-cells synthesizes preproinsulin, which consists of a signal peptide, A and B chains, and a C-peptide. Preproinsulin is then cleaved and folded into proinsulin, which translocates to the Golgi apparatus for sorting and packaging into secretory granules. In these granules, enzymatic clipping generates insulin and C-peptide.
Damage or functional impairment of β-cells inhibits insulin production, leading to diabetes. Diabetes treatment...
472
Oral Hypoglycemic Agents: Glinides01:06

Oral Hypoglycemic Agents: Glinides

211
Repaglinide (Prandin) and Nateglinide (Starlix), known as glinides, are oral insulin secretagogues that stimulate insulin release from pancreatic β cells by closing the ATP-sensitive potassium channels (KATP channel). Repaglinide controls insulin release from pancreatic β cells by managing potassium efflux. It shares two binding sites with sulfonylureas and also has a unique site, indicating overlapping mechanisms of action. With a rapid onset and a 4-7 hour duration, it effectively...
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Aug 17, 2025

Mechanisms Underlying Gut Hormone Secretion Using the Isolated Perfused Rat Small Intestine
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Four sidenotes about glucagon peptides.

Jens F Rehfeld1

  • 1Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Rigshospitalet, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.

Peptides
|December 15, 2022
PubMed
Summary

Glucagon, a classic hormone, is also produced in the gut, yielding peptides like GLP-1. This peptide

Area of Science:

  • Gastrointestinal Endocrinology
  • Molecular Endocrinology
  • Hormone Gene Expression

Background:

  • Glucagon is a well-known pancreatic hormone.
  • The glucagon gene is also highly expressed in extrapancreatic sites, notably the gut.
  • The gut functions as the body's largest endocrine organ, producing over 100 bioactive peptides.

Approach:

  • Review of glucagon peptides within the gut hormone hierarchy.
  • Inclusion of three historical glucagon studies from the 1970s.
  • Discussion of potential revisits to historical questions using modern molecular endocrinology.

Key Points:

  • Truncated GLP-1 has gained significant interest for its incretin effect.
  • GLP-1 is the basis for novel potent diabetes and obesity medications.
Keywords:
Cholecystokinin (CCK)Fatty liverGastrinGastrointestinal endocrinologyGlucagonGlucagon-like peptides (GLP-1 and -2)Gut hormonesIncretinLiver cirrhosisReactive hypoglycemia

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  • The gut functions as the body's largest endocrine organ, with over 100 bioactive peptides.

    • Conclusions:

    • The gut is a major site for glucagon peptide production, significantly contributing to endocrinology.
    • GLP-1's therapeutic potential has been realized in drug development for metabolic disorders.
    • Revisiting older glucagon research questions with current molecular tools may yield new insights.