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The physical form of a substance changes on changing its temperature. For example, raising the temperature of a liquid causes the liquid to vaporize (convert into vapor). The process is called vaporization—a surface phenomenon. Vaporization occurs when the thermal motion of the molecules overcome the intermolecular forces, and the molecules (at the surface) escape into the gaseous state. When a liquid vaporizes in a closed container, gas molecules cannot escape. As these gas phase...
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In the macroscopic world, objects that are large enough to be seen by the naked eye follow the rules of classical physics. A billiard ball moving on a table will behave like a particle; it will continue traveling in a straight line unless it collides with another ball, or it is acted on by some other force, such as friction. The ball has a well-defined position and velocity or well-defined momentum, p = mv, which is defined by mass m and velocity v at any given moment. This is the typical...
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The motion of molecules in a gas is random in magnitude and direction for individual molecules, but a gas of many molecules has a predictable distribution of molecular speeds. This predictable distribution of molecular speeds is known as the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution. The distribution of molecular speeds in liquids is comparable to that of gases but not identical and can help to understand the phenomenon of the boiling and vapor pressure of a liquid. Consider that a molecule requires a...
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Heating a crystalline solid increases the average energy of its atoms, molecules, or ions, and the solid gets hotter. At some point, the added energy becomes large enough to partially overcome the forces holding the molecules or ions of the solid in their fixed positions, and the solid begins the process of transitioning to the liquid state or melting. At this point, the temperature of the solid stops rising, despite the continual input of heat, and it remains constant until all of the solid is...
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Following the work of Ernest Rutherford and his colleagues in the early twentieth century, the picture of atoms consisting of tiny dense nuclei surrounded by lighter and even tinier electrons continually moving about the nucleus was well established. This picture was called the planetary model since it pictured the atom as a miniature “solar system” with the electrons orbiting the nucleus like planets orbiting the sun. The simplest atom is hydrogen, consisting of a single proton as...
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Particles in a solid are tightly packed together (fixed shape) and often arranged in a regular pattern; in a liquid, they are close together with no regular arrangement (no fixed shape); in a gas, they are far apart with no regular arrangement (no fixed shape). Particles in a solid vibrate about fixed positions (cannot flow) and do not generally move in relation to one another; in a liquid, they move past each other (can flow) but remain in essentially constant contact; in a gas, they move...
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Microscopic dynamics and Bose-Einstein condensation in liquid helium.

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  • 1School of Physical and Chemical Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, Mile End Road, London E1 4NS, United Kingdom.

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Summary

Mobile atoms in liquid helium accumulate at finite energy states near the speed of sound, explaining superfluidity and macroscopic wave function phenomena.

Keywords:
classical liquidsliquid theorymicroscopic dynamicsquantum liquids

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Area of Science:

  • Condensed matter physics
  • Quantum fluid dynamics

Background:

  • Classical and quantum liquid theory present fundamental challenges.
  • Understanding microscopic dynamics is key to liquid behavior.

Approach:

  • Applying classical liquid dynamics principles to quantum liquids.
  • Investigating momentum condensation in liquid helium.

Key Points:

  • Mobile transit atoms accumulate in finite-energy states near the speed of sound.
  • This accumulation occurs in momentum space on a sphere defined by interatomic spacing.
  • Experimental evidence includes measured kinetic energy and scattered intensity peaks.

Conclusions:

  • The proposed picture supports the existence of a macroscopic wave function.
  • This model provides insights into the phenomenon of superfluidity.