Related Experiment Video

Updated: Aug 13, 2025

A Within-subjects Experimental Protocol to Assess the Effects of Social Input on Infant EEG

A Within-subjects Experimental Protocol to Assess the Effects of Social Input on Infant EEG

Published on: May 3, 2017

Effects of COVID-19 Financial and Social Hardships on Infants' and Toddlers' Development in the ECHO Program

Sara S Nozadi¹, Ximin Li², Xiangrong Kong^2,3

¹Community Environmental Health Program, College of Pharmacy, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM 87106, USA.

International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health

|January 21, 2023

Insights

COVID-19 hardships did not directly impact early childhood development in communication or socioemotional skills. However, boys showed negative developmental changes during the pandemic, warranting further research into pandemic effects on child development.

Area of Science:

Child Development
Psychology
Public Health

Background:

COVID-19 pandemic caused financial and social hardships impacting child development.
Research has focused on school-aged children, with less known about early childhood development during the pandemic.
This study examines pandemic hardships and their association with early communication and socioemotional development.

Purpose of the Study:

To investigate the association between pandemic-related financial and social hardships and developmental outcomes in children under 4.
To focus on communication and socioemotional development in a diverse sample.
To analyze changes in development from before to during the pandemic.

Main Methods:

Utilized data from eight cohorts of the Environmental influences on Child Health Outcomes program (N=684).
Assessed child development using the Ages and Stages Questionnaire (ASQ) longitudinally.
Employed Generalized Estimating Equations to analyze pandemic hardships and developmental changes.

Main Results:

Minority and low socioeconomic status families experienced disproportionately higher hardships.
Male children showed increased odds of negative changes in communication and social skills (ORs 2.24-3.03).
Pandemic hardships did not explain observed changes in children's developmental outcomes.

Conclusions:

Negative developmental changes were observed in boys during the pandemic.
No direct association was found between pandemic hardships and children's developmental changes.
Further research with larger sample sizes and longer follow-up is needed to understand pandemic effects on child development.

Read full analysis

Abstract

Background:

The financial hardships and social isolation experienced during the COVID-19 pandemic have been found to adversely affect children's developmental outcomes. While many studies thus far have focused on school-aged children and the pandemic-related impacts on their academic skills and behavior problems, relatively less is known about pandemic hardships and associations with children's development during their early years. Using a racially and economically diverse sample, we examined whether hardships experienced during the pandemic were associated with children's development with a particular focus on communication and socioemotional development.

Methods:

Participants from eight cohorts of the Environmental influences on Child Health Outcomes program provided data on pandemic-related financial and social hardships as well as child developmental outcomes. Financial hardship was defined as at least one parent experiencing job loss or change, and social hardship was defined as families' quarantining from household members or extended family and friends. The development of children under 4 was assessed longitudinally, before and during the pandemic (N = 684), using the Ages and Stages Questionnaire (ASQ). The Generalized Estimating Equations, which accounted for within-child correlation, were used for analysis.

Results:

Families from minority backgrounds and low socioeconomic status disproportionately experienced pandemic-related hardships. Male children had higher odds of experiencing negative changes in communication and personal social skills from pre- to during-pandemic visits (ORs ranged between 2.24 and 3.03 in analysis with binary ASQ outcomes and ranged from -0.34-0.36 in analyses with ASQ z-scores, ps = 0.000). Pandemic-related hardships in the social and financial areas did not explain within-individual changes in children's developmental outcomes.

Conclusion:

Negative developmental changes from pre- to during-pandemic were found in boys, yet we did not find any associations between increased experience of pandemic-related hardships and children's development. E how pandemic hardships affect development using a larger sample size and with longer follow-up is warranted.

Keywords:

ASQ COVID-19 ages and stages questionnaire early development pandemic-related hardships

More Related Videos

Use of a Video Scoring Anchor for Rapid Serial Assessment of Social Communication in Toddlers

Use of a Video Scoring Anchor for Rapid Serial Assessment of Social Communication in Toddlers

Published on: March 14, 2018

Experimental Paradigm for Measuring the Effects of Self-distancing in Young Children

Experimental Paradigm for Measuring the Effects of Self-distancing in Young Children

Published on: March 1, 2019

Related Concept Videos

Socioemotional Development during Infancy

Socioemotional Development during Infancy

Socio-emotional development in infancy is primarily shaped by early emotional responses and social connections, with temperament playing a central role. Temperament refers to the consistent patterns in an individual's emotional and behavioral responses, observable even in infancy. By examining temperament, researchers can better understand an infant's unique ways of interacting with the world, influencing subsequent personality and socio-emotional growth.
Primary Temperament Types

Erikson's Theory on Socioemotional Development during Childhood

Erikson's Theory on Socioemotional Development during Childhood

Erik Erikson, a stage theorist, adapted Freud's theory to emphasize social factors in personality development throughout life, a concept known as psychosocial development. Unlike Freud, who focused on early childhood, Erikson believed that personality evolves across eight life stages, each marked by a specific challenge or "crisis." Successful resolution of each stage fosters competence, while failure may lead to feelings of inadequacy.
The first four of Erikson's eight...

Autism Spectrum Disorder

Autism Spectrum Disorder

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental condition marked by persistent deficits in social communication and interaction alongside restrictive and repetitive behaviors or interests. ASD is sometimes accompanied by intellectual impairment.
These core symptoms manifest differently among individuals, ranging from mild to severe. The disorder's complexity extends beyond its clinical presentation, encompassing a diverse range of biological, cognitive, and sociocultural influences.

Environmental Influences on Intelligence

Environmental Influences on Intelligence

Despite the strong genetic influence on traits like intelligence, environmental factors significantly shape outcomes. For example, while over 90% of height variation is due to genetic differences, environmental factors such as nutrition also have a notable impact. Similarly, for intelligence, changes in a child's surroundings can significantly alter their IQ. Research shows that enriched environments boost children's academic success and help them develop key cognitive skills. Children...

Socioemotional Experience and Gender Development

Socioemotional Experience and Gender Development

Social-emotional experiences and cultural influences play significant roles in shaping gender development. During middle childhood, from ages 6 to 11, peer groups become dominant in reinforcing gender norms. Children in this age group often align with same-gender peer groups, which actively encourage behaviors that conform to traditional gender roles. For instance, boys may be discouraged from engaging in activities perceived as feminine, reinforcing culturally dictated norms about masculinity...

Cognitive Development During Adolescence

Cognitive Development During Adolescence

During adolescence, individuals experience significant cognitive development that enhances their understanding of others' emotions and thoughts, known as cognitive empathy. This period is marked by an increased ability to adapt to others' perspectives and a more nuanced understanding of others' mental states, a skill that is foundational for social problem-solving and conflict avoidance. The development of cognitive empathy relies heavily on the theory of mind — the...

Articles linked to this work by shared authors, journal, and citation graph.

Periconceptional neighborhood deprivation and risk of gestational and postpartum hypertensive disorders in a population-based cohort.

American journal of preventive cardiology·2026

Role of neighborhood vulnerability and opportunity in the association between prenatal air pollution and autism-related traits in the ECHO Cohort.

Environmental research·2026

Parenting profiles and dimensions in relation to children's internalizing and externalizing behaviors in the ECHO program.

PloS one·2026

First and second trimester concentrations of environmental phenols in association with gestational weight gain in the ECHO cohort.

Environmental research·2026

Prenatal exposure to wildfire fine particulate matter and fetal growth outcomes in the United States: Findings from the ECHO Cohort.

Environmental epidemiology (Philadelphia, Pa.)·2026

Prenatal exposure to a mixture of non-persistent endocrine-disrupting chemicals and attention and hyperactivity symptoms in children in the ECHO cohort.

Environment international·2026

See all related articles