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Viruses are unique biological entities that blur the boundary between living and non-living systems. Although they lack cellular structure and metabolic processes, they can exhibit characteristics of life when infecting a host. Their defining feature is a nucleic acid core, composed of either DNA or RNA, encapsulated within a protein coat called a capsid. This simple structure allows them to invade host cells and use their machinery for replication efficiently.Viral Structure and...
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Receptor-mediated endocytosis is when bulk amounts of specific molecules are imported into a cell after binding to cell surface receptors. The molecules bound to these receptors are taken into the cell through inward folding of the cell surface membrane, which is eventually pinched off into a vesicle within the cell. Structural proteins, such as clathrin, coat the budding vesicle.
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Viruses are extraordinarily diverse in shape and size, but they all have several structural features in common. All viruses have a core that contains a DNA- or RNA-based genome. The core is surrounded by a protective coat of proteins called the capsid. The capsid is composed of subunits called capsomeres. The capsid and genome-containing core are together known as the nucleocapsid.
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Cells are sometimes infected by more than one virus at once. When two viruses disassemble to expose their genomes for replication in the same cell, similar regions of their genomes can pair together and exchange sequences in a process called recombination. Alternatively, viruses with segmented genomes can swap segments in a process called reassortment.
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Updated: Aug 13, 2025

Direct Stochastic Optical Reconstruction Microscopy of Extracellular Vesicles in Three Dimensions
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Extracellular Vesicles and Viruses: Two Intertwined Entities.

Coline Moulin1,2, Mathieu J F Crupi1,3, Carolina S Ilkow1,3

  • 1Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, ON K1H 8L6, Canada.

International Journal of Molecular Sciences
|January 21, 2023
PubMed
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Viruses and extracellular vesicles (EVs) utilize similar cellular machinery. This review explores their interconnected roles in disease and the potential of engineered virus-EV therapies.

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cancerextracellular vesicles (EVs)gene therapyvirotherapyvirus-host interactions

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Area of Science:

  • Virology
  • Cell Biology
  • Nanomedicine

Background:

  • Viruses and extracellular vesicles (EVs) share commonalities in biogenesis and function.
  • Viruses can hijack EV production pathways for replication and spread.
  • EVs can modulate immune responses to viral infections.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review the intricate relationship between viruses and EVs.
  • To discuss recent advancements in engineering virus-EV based therapeutics.
  • To highlight the implications for disease progression and treatment.

Main Methods:

  • Literature review of studies published in the last five years.
  • Analysis of viral manipulation of EV pathways.
  • Synthesis of research on EV-mediated immune responses to viruses.

Main Results:

  • Viruses and EVs utilize overlapping cellular machinery for production and release.
  • EVs can act as carriers for viral components and immunomodulatory signals.
  • Interactions between viruses and EVs influence disease pathogenesis.
  • Engineered virus-EVs show promise for combinational therapeutic strategies.

Conclusions:

  • The interplay between viruses and EVs is complex and multifaceted.
  • Understanding these interactions opens new avenues for disease treatment.
  • Virus-EV based therapies represent a promising frontier in nanomedicine.