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Related Concept Videos

Hormones Regulating Blood Glucose01:16

Hormones Regulating Blood Glucose

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Insulin is released by beta cells of the pancreas when blood glucose levels are high. It facilitates glucose absorption and utilization in insulin-dependent cells with insulin receptors on their plasma membranes. Insulin promotes glucose uptake by increasing the number of glucose transport proteins in the cell membrane, allowing glucose to enter the cell. As a result, glucose utilization and ATP production are enhanced.
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Glucose Homeostasis: Regulation of Blood Glucose01:02

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Carbohydrates consumed through foods are converted into glucose, a crucial energy source for the body. In the prandial state, high blood glucose levels stimulate the secretion of insulin from the pancreas. Insulin inhibits hepatic glucose production and stimulates glucose uptake and metabolism by muscle and adipose tissue. The excess glucose is converted into glycogen and stored in the liver and muscles.
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T Cell Types and Functions01:24

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When T cells with CD4 markers are activated, they give rise to two types of effector cells: helper T cells and regulatory T cells. Meanwhile, T cells with CD8 markers differentiate into effector cytotoxic T cells. The differentiation of CD4 T cells into helper T cell subsets, such as Th1, Th2, and Th17 cells, is dependent on the antigen type, antigen-presenting cell, and regulatory cytokines.
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T cells are integral to our adaptive immune system, recognizing and effectively responding to foreign antigens. T cell activation and clonal selection are pivotal in orchestrating this immune response. This article elucidates these mechanisms, detailing the roles of cluster of differentiation (CD) markers, major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules, costimulatory signals, and the process of clonal selection.
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TGF - β Signaling Pathway01:16

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The TGF-β signaling pathway regulates cell growth, differentiation, adhesion, motility, and development. TGF-β ligands that induce TGF-β signaling are synthesized in their latent form. Several proteases or cell surface receptors such as integrins act upon the latent form, releasing the active ligand. There are three types of mammalian TGF-βs: (TGF-β1, TGF-β2, and TGF-β3) that bind as homodimers or heterodimers to TGF-β receptors. The TGF-β receptors...
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The pancreatic islets comprising only 1%-2% of the volume are highly vascularized and innervated mini-organs. They contain five endocrine cell types, including β cells that secrete insulin, which is synthesized as a single polypeptide chain, preproinsulin, processed to proinsulin, and finally to insulin and C-peptide. This process is complex and regulated, involving the Golgi complex, the endoplasmic reticulum, and the secretory granules of the β cell.
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Aug 12, 2025

Live Images of GLUT4 Protein Trafficking in Mouse Primary Hypothalamic Neurons Using Deconvolution Microscopy
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High glucose promotes regulatory T cell differentiation.

Elise Pitmon1, Eileen Victoria Meehan1, Elham Ahmadi1

  • 1Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, CT, United States of America.

Plos One
|February 2, 2023
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

High glucose levels surprisingly promote regulatory T cells (Tregs) and inhibit effector T cells. This occurs indirectly, mediated by lactate produced by activated T cells, suggesting a novel feedback loop in T cell differentiation.

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Area of Science:

  • Immunology
  • Metabolic Disease Research
  • Cellular Metabolism

Background:

  • Western diets high in processed foods and sugar are linked to inflammatory diseases like obesity, type 2 diabetes, and autoimmune conditions.
  • T lymphocytes play a key role in inflammation, with effector T cells promoting it and regulatory T cells (Tregs) dampening it.
  • Glucose metabolism influences T cell differentiation, but the effect of high glucose on the balance between effector and regulatory T cells remains unclear.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate the impact of elevated glucose concentrations on the differentiation of naive CD4+ T cells into effector versus regulatory lineages.
  • To elucidate the underlying mechanisms by which glucose affects T cell fate.
  • To explore potential novel feedback mechanisms in T cell differentiation.

Main Methods:

  • Culturing naive CD4+ T cells with varying glucose concentrations.
  • Analyzing T cell differentiation into effector (Th1) and regulatory (Treg) lineages.
  • Investigating the role of lactate and Akt/mTOR signaling in T cell differentiation.

Main Results:

  • High glucose concentrations promoted regulatory T cell differentiation.
  • High glucose inhibited Th1 effector T cell differentiation.
  • This skewing was mediated by lactate produced by glycolytic T cells, which in turn promoted Treg differentiation and activated Akt/mTOR signaling.

Conclusions:

  • Elevated glucose indirectly favors regulatory T cell differentiation over Th1 effector cells.
  • Lactate produced by activated T cells acts as a signaling molecule to promote Treg lineage commitment.
  • A novel feedback mechanism exists where T cell metabolism influences their own lineage fate.