Recording electrical activity from the brain of behaving octopus

Octopuses, which are among the most intelligent invertebrates,^1,2,3,4 have no skeleton and eight flexible arms whose sensory and motor activities are at once autonomous and coordinated by a complex central nervous system.^5,6,7,8 The octopus brain contains a very large number of neurons, organized into numerous distinct lobes, the functions of which have been proposed based largely on the results of lesioning experiments.^{9,10,11,12,13} In other species, linking brain activity to behavior is done by implanting electrodes and directly correlating electrical activity with observed animal behavior. However, because the octopus lacks any hard structure to which recording equipment can be anchored, and because it uses its eight flexible arms to remove any foreign object attached to the outside of its body, in vivo recording of electrical activity from untethered, behaving octopuses has thus far not been possible. Here, we describe a novel technique for inserting a portable data logger into the octopus and implanting electrodes into the vertical lobe system, such that brain activity can be recorded for up to 12 h from unanesthetized, untethered octopuses and can be synchronized with simultaneous video recordings of behavior. In the brain activity, we identified several distinct patterns that appeared consistently in all animals. While some resemble activity patterns in mammalian neural tissue, others, such as episodes of 2 Hz, large amplitude oscillations, have not been reported. By providing an experimental platform for recording brain activity in behaving octopuses, our study is a critical step toward understanding how the brain controls behavior in these remarkable animals.