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Problem-Solving01:29

Problem-Solving

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Effective problem-solving consists of two steps: 1. identifying the problem and 2. selecting the appropriate problem-solving strategy (i.e., a plan of action used to find a solution). Humans use four problem-solving strategies:
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Metacognition01:26

Metacognition

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Metacognition is a conscious process where individuals are aware of their cognitive and executive processes, such as planning before solving a problem or self-monitoring during reading. For instance, a writer may need help with composing a piece. The situation involves a writer who is working on a piece of writing, but while doing so, they realize that something is missing. They notice that their characters lack depth or details. This realization occurs because the writer is reflecting on their...
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Self-Evaluation: Self-Enhancement and Self-Verification03:00

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Social psychologists have documented that feeling good about ourselves and maintaining positive self-esteem is a powerful motivator of human behavior (Tavris & Aronson, 2008). In the United States, members of the predominant culture typically think very highly of themselves and view themselves as good people who are above average on many desirable traits (Ehrlinger, Gilovich, & Ross, 2005). Often, our behavior, attitudes, and beliefs are affected when we experience a threat to our...
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Persuasion Strategies01:52

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Researchers have tested many persuasion strategies, including the foot-in-the door and the door-in-the-face techniques, in a variety of contexts. Ultimately, the principles are effective in selling products and changing people’s attitude, ideas, and behaviors (Cialdini & Goldstein, 2004).
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Fundamental Attribution Error01:14

Fundamental Attribution Error

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According to some social psychologists, people tend to overemphasize internal factors as explanations—or attributions—for the behavior of other people. They tend to assume that the behavior of another person is a trait of that person, and to underestimate the power of the situation on the behavior of others. They tend to fail to recognize when the behavior of another is due to situational variables, and thus to the person’s state. This erroneous assumption is...
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Self-Presentation: Self-Monitoring and Self-Handicapping02:05

Self-Presentation: Self-Monitoring and Self-Handicapping

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People can go to great lengths to protect their self-image and present themselves in ways that they want others to see them. Sociologist Erving Goffman presented the idea that a person is like an actor on a stage. Calling his theory dramaturgy, Goffman believed that we use “impression management” to present ourselves to others as we hope to be perceived. Each situation is a new scene, and individuals perform different roles depending on who is present (Goffman, 1959). Think about...
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Aug 1, 2025

Problem-Solving Before Instruction PS-I: A Protocol for Assessment and Intervention in Students with Different Abilities
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Smart or just lucky? Inferring question-asking competence from strategies' efficiency versus effectiveness.

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  • 1MPRG iSearch, Max Planck Institute for Human Development.

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Summary

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Area of Science:

  • Cognitive Development
  • Developmental Psychology
  • Social Cognition

Background:

  • Children often judge competence based on action outcomes, which can be influenced by luck.
  • The reliability of strategy efficiency as a competence indicator is less understood in children.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate how children and adults infer competence from task-solving efficiency.
  • To examine the role of expected information gains (EIG) in competence judgments.

Main Methods:

  • Two experiments were conducted with 5- to 10-year-old children and adults in Germany.
  • Participants evaluated agent competence in a 20-questions game and a maze-exploration game, varying strategy efficiency and effectiveness.

Main Results:

  • Adults and children aged 8+ inferred competence from strategy efficiency.
  • Younger children and some participants relied more on observed effectiveness, even when luck was a factor.
  • Participants attributed competence to agents using fewer questions, irrespective of strategy efficiency.

Conclusions:

  • The ability to judge competence based on strategy efficiency develops around 8 years of age.
  • Observed effectiveness remains a strong cue for competence, even when misleading.
  • Implicit competence understanding may exist in preschoolers, preceding explicit judgments based on efficiency.