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Related Concept Videos

Retrieval01:12

Retrieval

144
Retrieval is the process of getting information out of memory storage and back into conscious awareness. This ability is essential for daily tasks like brushing hair and teeth, driving to work, and performing job duties. Retrieval occurs in three ways: recall, recognition, and relearning.
Recall involves accessing information without cues, such as during an essay test, where individuals must retrieve facts and concepts from memory unaided. Another example is remembering the name of a colleague...
144
Elaborative Rehearsals01:07

Elaborative Rehearsals

111
Elaborative rehearsal is a crucial cognitive strategy that strengthens information encoding in long-term memory by making meaningful connections between new data and pre-existing knowledge. This approach contrasts with maintenance rehearsal, which involves simple repetition without delving into the significance of the information. While maintenance rehearsal might temporarily keep information active in short-term memory, it is less effective for long-term retention.
The effectiveness of...
111
Chunking and Rehearsal in Sensory Memory01:22

Chunking and Rehearsal in Sensory Memory

257
Improving short-term memory can be achieved through techniques like chunking and rehearsal. Chunking involves organizing information into larger, more manageable units. This technique is particularly useful for information that exceeds the typical memory span of between five and nine items. For instance, logging into an online account with a password like "ta89vq0179gz" involves grouping letters and numbers into three chunks—ta89, vq01, and 79gz. It makes large amounts of...
257
Interference and Decay01:16

Interference and Decay

181
Forgetting is a complex cognitive phenomenon influenced by several factors, among which interference and decay are particularly prominent. These processes explain why individuals often struggle to retrieve specific information from memory, leading to lapses in recall that can be observed in everyday situations.
Interference occurs when competing memories hinder the retrieval of particular information. It can be classified into two types: proactive and retroactive interference. Proactive...
181
Metacognition01:26

Metacognition

242
Metacognition is a conscious process where individuals are aware of their cognitive and executive processes, such as planning before solving a problem or self-monitoring during reading. For instance, a writer may need help with composing a piece. The situation involves a writer who is working on a piece of writing, but while doing so, they realize that something is missing. They notice that their characters lack depth or details. This realization occurs because the writer is reflecting on their...
242
Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon01:10

Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon

177
The tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) phenomenon is a cognitive experience characterized by a temporary inability to retrieve specific information from memory despite having a strong feeling of knowing the information. Although individuals cannot access the target word or detail, they frequently recall related elements, such as its initial letter, syllable count, or context. This partial retrieval often causes frustration, as one might recognize a familiar face or know that a name starts with a specific...
177

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jul 31, 2025

Examining Recall Memory in Infancy and Early Childhood Using the Elicited Imitation Paradigm
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"It was not mentioned": Improving responses to unanswerable questions using retrieval instructions.

Ewa Skopicz-Radkiewicz1, Monika Derda1, Agnieszka Niedźwieńska1

  • 1Faculty of Philosophy, Institute of Psychology, Jagiellonian University.

Journal of Experimental Psychology. Applied
|May 4, 2023
PubMed
Summary

This study shows that reminding people that questions can be unanswerable improves their responses to difficult questions. Awareness, not just memory training, helps avoid providing incorrect information.

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Area of Science:

  • Cognitive Psychology
  • Eyewitness Testimony

Background:

  • Asking many questions can lead to speculation about unwitnessed details.
  • Individuals may provide incorrect answers to unanswerable questions.

Purpose of the Study:

  • Investigate methods to improve responses to unanswerable questions.
  • Examine the role of problem-solving and judgment processes.
  • Determine if metacognitive enhancement underlies improved responding.

Main Methods:

  • Experiment 1: Compared retrieval training with increased reporting criteria.
  • Experiment 2: Compared training with a response format change ensuring awareness of unanswerable questions.

Main Results:

  • Retrieval training and increased reporting criteria had distinct effects.
  • Metacognitive enhancement was not supported as the underlying mechanism for training.
  • Training and response format change yielded similar improvements, highlighting the role of awareness.

Conclusions:

  • Constant awareness that questions may be unanswerable is crucial for accurate responding.
  • This awareness can be fostered through training or response format adjustments.
  • Findings have practical implications for improving the reliability of eyewitness memory.