The evolution of maximum terrestrial body mass in sauropod dinosaurs

The long-necked dinosaurs, sauropods, are famous for their extreme body sizes, evolving body masses several times greater than the next-heaviest terrestrial animals, elephant-like and rhinoceros- like mammals and 'duck-billed' dinosaurs. The pace of sauropod discovery has been exponential in recent decades, resulting in the recognition of sauropods as a global, ecologically diverse group of herbivorous dinosaurs comprising over 250 known species¹. However, limitations due to missing data from their patchy fossil record have so far limited studies of sauropod body-size evolution to less than half their known diversity¹. Here, I present models to confidently predict unknown limb-bone measurements in sauropods, resulting in a dataset 50% larger than previously assembled. Leveraging the emerging consilience among body mass estimation methods for fossil tetrapods, I then map sauropod body mass evolution through time in a phylogenetic context. Likelihood-based ancestral state reconstruction reveals that sauropods convergently surpassed maximum terrestrial mammalian body mass at least three dozen times over the course of 100 million years, on at least six landmasses and in at least five ecomorphologically disparate clades. Sauropod maximum body mass rapidly increased early in their evolutionary history from under 5,000 kg before levelling off around 40,000 kg (with notable exceptions)², in a pattern similar to that observed in terrestrial mammals³.