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Updated: Jul 28, 2025

Isolation of Exosomes from the Plasma of HIV-1 Positive Individuals
Published on: January 5, 2016
HIV and inflammatory markers are associated with persistent COVID-19 symptoms
Patrick Kamanzi1, Gina Mulundu2, Keagan Mutale3
1Dermatology and Venereology Division, Department of Medicine, University of Teaching Hospital, University of Zambia School of Medicine, Lusaka, Zambia.
Background:
A proportion of COVID19 survivors may present with long-COVID, which is persistent symptoms lasting four or more weeks post SARS-CoV-2 infection. These symptoms may be mild to severe, and may affect different organ-systems of the body.
Aims:
The main objective of this study was to determine the demographic, clinical and immunological factors associated with long COVID.
Materials & Methods:
We conducted a nested case control study, with a total of 94 study participants initially included, and 64 participants matched for age and sex for biomarker analyses.
Results:
32/94 (34.1%) of all the participants had long COVID. Respiratory symptoms were the most common (59.5%) followed by the musculoskeletal symptoms (28.1%). HIV was an independent predictor of long COVID (adjusted odds ratio = 2.7; p = .037). In all the 64 matched cases and controls, IFN-β was significantly higher among controls than cases. After stratifying by HIV, IL6 was significantly higher among cases than controls in the HIV- group (2.06 vs. 0.81 pg/mL; p = .02). On the other hand, IFN-β was significantly higher among controls than cases in the HIV+ group (251 vs. 0 pg/mL; p = .01).
Conclusion:
HIV infection is a risk factor for long COVID, and inflammatory markers associated with long COVID may be slightly different for HIV- and HIV+ individuals.
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