High-Resolution Nanoanalytical Insights into Particle Formation in SnO

Tin oxide (SnO2)/zinc oxide (ZnO) core/shell nanowires as anode materials in lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) were investigated using a combination of classical electrochemical analysis and high-resolution electron microscopy to correlate structural changes and battery performance. The combination of the conversion materials SnO2 and ZnO is known to have higher storage capacities than the individual materials. We report the expected electrochemical signals of SnO2 and ZnO for SnO2/ZnO core/shell nanowires as well as unexpected structural changes in the heterostructure after cycling. Electrochemical measurements based on charge/discharge, rate capability, and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy showed electrochemical signals for SnO2 and ZnO and partial reversibility of lithiation and delithiation. We find an initially 30% higher capacity for the SnO2/ZnO core/shell NW heterostructure compared to the ZnO-coated substrate without the SnO2 NWs. However, electron microscopy characterization revealed pronounced structural changes upon cycling, including redistribution of Sn and Zn, formation of ∼30 nm particles composed of metallic Sn, and a loss of mechanical integrity. We discuss these changes in terms of the different reversibilities of the charge reactions of both SnO2 and ZnO. The results show stability limitations of SnO2/ZnO heterostructure LIB anodes and offer guidelines on material design for advanced next-generation anode materials for LIBs.