Discharge domains regulation and dynamic processes of direct-current triboelectric nanogenerator

Direct-current triboelectric nanogenerators arising from electrostatic breakdown can eliminate the bottleneck problem of air breakdown in conventional triboelectric nanogenerators, offering critical benefits of constant-current output, resistance to electromagnetic interference, and high output power density. Previous understanding is that its output characteristics are described by a capacitor-breakdown model or dictated by one or two discharge domains in direct-current triboelectric nanogenerators. Here, we demonstrate that the former holds only for ideal conditions and the latter cannot fully explain the dynamic process and output performance. We systematically image, define, and regulate three discharge domains in direct-current triboelectric nanogenerators, then a "cask model" is developed to bridge the cascaded-capacitor-breakdown dynamic model in ideal conditions and real outputs. Under its guidance, the output power is increased by an order of magnitude within a wide range of resistive loads. These unexplored discharge domains and optimization methods revolutionize the output performance and potential applications of direct-current triboelectric nanogenerators.