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The superior view of the cranium shows the frontal and paired parietal bones.
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Association areas are regions of the cerebral cortex that do not have a specific sensory or motor function. Instead, they integrate and interpret information from various sources to enable higher cognitive processes such as memory, learning, and decision-making. Some key association areas include the following:
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The human skull is composed of several bones that come together to protect the brain and support the structures of the face. The junctions where these bones meet are called sutures.
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Charles Darwin proposed that facial expressions are an evolutionary adaptation for communication. He argued that these expressions are not influenced by culture but are universal across species. For example, a snarling expression with exposed teeth signals a threat in many animals, including humans. Darwin also suggested that displaying an emotion can intensify the feeling. Smiling, for example, could enhance one's sense of happiness. This idea laid the foundation for understanding the role...
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The cranium (skull) is the skeletal structure of the head that supports the face and protects the brain. It is subdivided into the facial bones and the brain case, or cranial vault. The facial bones underlie the facial structures, form the nasal cavity, enclose the eyeballs, and support the teeth of the upper and lower jaws.
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Updated: Jul 26, 2025

Holistic Facial Composite Creation and Subsequent Video Line-up Eyewitness Identification Paradigm
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Forehead Contouring.

Nikita Gupta1, Carly Clark1

  • 1University of Kentucky Otolaryngology- Head and Neck Surgery, Division of Facial Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, 740 South Limestone, E305, Lexington, KY 40536, USA.

Facial Plastic Surgery Clinics of North America
|June 22, 2023
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Forehead contouring significantly impacts facial gender perception by feminizing masculine features. Surgical techniques, including reduction and augmentation, offer effective facial feminization with minimal risks.

Keywords:
Facial feminizationForehead contouringGender affirmation facial surgeryUpper third of face

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Area of Science:

  • Plastic and reconstructive surgery
  • Facial feminization surgery
  • Gender affirmation surgery

Background:

  • The upper face, particularly the forehead, plays a crucial role in facial gendering.
  • Masculine facial features in the upper third can be a source of gender dysphoria.
  • Surgical modification of the forehead is key in facial feminization.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To evaluate the impact of forehead contouring on facial gender assessment.
  • To review surgical techniques for forehead feminization.
  • To assess the safety and outcomes of forehead contouring procedures.

Main Methods:

  • Review of surgical techniques including forehead reduction, augmentation, orbital contouring, and hairline adjustment.
  • Comparison of traditional open techniques with newer endoscopic procedures and custom implants.
  • Analysis of patient outcomes and side effect profiles.

Main Results:

  • Forehead contouring effectively modifies facial appearance to appear more feminine.
  • Both open and minimally invasive techniques (endoscopic, custom implants) are available.
  • Procedures are generally well-tolerated with few reported side effects.

Conclusions:

  • Forehead contouring is a pivotal procedure in facial feminization, significantly influencing gender perception.
  • A range of surgical options exist, catering to different patient needs and defect severities.
  • The safety profile of forehead contouring is favorable, even with proximity to critical structures.