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Updated: Jun 23, 2026
A Neuroscientific Approach to the Examination of Concussions in Student-Athletes
Published on: December 8, 2014
Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy in Soccer Players: Review of 14 Cases
Gerard Hageman1, Ivar Hageman2, Jik Nihom1
1Department of Neurology, Medisch Spectrum Twente, Hospital Enschede, Enschede, the Netherlands; and.
Objective:
Exposure to repetitive sports-related concussions or (sub)concussive head trauma may lead to chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE). Which impact (heading or concussion) poses the greatest risk of CTE development in soccer players?
Design:
Narrative review.
Setting:
Teaching hospital and University of Applied sciences.
Patients:
A literature search (PubMed) was conducted for neuropathologic studies in the period 2005-December 2022, investigating soccer players with dementia and a CTE diagnosis, limited to English language publications. 210 papers were selected for final inclusion, of which 7 papers described 14 soccer players.
Assessment:
Magnetic resonance imaging studies in soccer players show that lifetime estimates of heading numbers are inversely correlated with cortical thickness, grey matter volume, and density of the anterior temporal cortex. Using diffusion tensor imaging-magnetic resonance imaging, higher frequency of headings-particularly with rotational accelerations-are associated with impaired white matter integrity. Serum neurofilament light protein is elevated after heading.
Main Outcome Measures:
Chronic traumatic encephalopathy pathology, history of concussion, heading frequency.
Results:
In 10 of 14 soccer players, CTE was the primary diagnosis. In 4 cases, other dementia types formed the primary diagnosis and CTE pathology was a concomitant finding. Remarkably, 6 of the 14 cases had no history of concussion, suggesting that frequent heading may be a risk for CTE in patients without symptomatic concussion. Rule changes in heading duels, management of concussion during the game, and limiting the number of high force headers during training are discussed.
Conclusions:
Data suggest that heading frequency and concussions are associated with higher risk of developing CTE in (retired) soccer players. However based on this review of only 14 players, questions persist as to whether or not heading is a risk factor for CTE or long-term cognitive decline.
